ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: The serum level of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is in the picomolar range under inflammatory conditions. We investigated whether these picomolar levels of TNF-alpha directly modulate the functional activities of circulating monocytes. METHODS AND RESULTS: In THP-1 monocytes treated with TNF-alpha (1 to 100 pmol/L/30 minutes), cytosolic RhoA small GTPase rapidly translocated to the plasma membrane via functionally active ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM) complex, a cytoskeletal linker, and subsequent actin polymerization through NF-kappaB activation. The threonine phosphorylation of ERM was accomplished by the activation of TNF receptor type I (TNFRI) and signaling pathways involving PI3K and an atypical PKC; ie, PKCzeta. The TNF-alpha-treated monocytes (10 pmol/L) displayed more potent and prolonged generation of GTP-bound RhoA in response to secondary stimulation with RhoA-activating monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Clearly, human circulating monocytes preconditioned by 10 pmol/L TNF-alpha augmented MCP-1-mediated chemotaxis and firm adhesion on VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 in vitro and ex vivo. The elevation of serum TNF-alpha (>5 pmol/L within 16 hours), which was introduced by intraperitoneal injection of mouse-specific TNF-alpha to C57/BL6 mice, enhanced the number of CD80+ monocytes transmigrating to the JE/MCP-1-injected intraperitoneal space. CONCLUSIONS: Picomolar concentrations of TNF-alpha in the bloodstream may prime the RhoA-dependent activities of circulating monocytes to enhance recruitment to active inflammatory foci.
Subject(s)
Monocytes/drug effects , Monocytes/physiology , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/pharmacology , rho GTP-Binding Proteins/physiology , rhoA GTP-Binding Protein/physiology , Animals , Biological Transport, Active/drug effects , Cell Line , Cell Membrane/drug effects , Cell Membrane/metabolism , Cell Movement/drug effects , Cell Movement/physiology , Chemokine CCL2/pharmacology , Cytoskeletal Proteins/metabolism , Humans , In Vitro Techniques , Macrophages, Peritoneal/drug effects , Macrophages, Peritoneal/physiology , Male , Membrane Proteins/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Microfilament Proteins/metabolism , NF-kappa B/metabolism , Peritoneal Cavity/cytology , Phosphorylation , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/metabolism , Recombinant Proteins/pharmacology , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/administration & dosageABSTRACT
AIMS: The present study investigated the detailed mechanism by which fractalkine (Fkn), a CX3C chemokine, induces angiogenesis and its functional implication in alleviating ischaemia in vivo. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fkn induced new vessel formation on the excised rat aorta and chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) through CX3CR1 activation. Immunoblotting analysis, promoter assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that Fkn upregulated hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1alpha) by cultured human aortic endothelial cells (ECs), which in turn induced mRNA and protein levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A through a p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In vivo Fkn-induced angiogenesis on CAM was completely blocked by functional inhibition of VEGF receptor 2 kinase insert domain-containing receptor (KDR) and Rho GTPase. C57/BL6 mice with CX3CR1(-/-) bone marrow-derived cells developed angiogenesis in the implanted Fkn-mixed Matrigel plug, suggesting CX3CR1 activation in vascular ECs is sufficient for Fkn-induced angiogenesis in vivo. The condition of rat hindlimb ischaemia, which rapidly stimulated mRNA expression of both Fkn and VEGF-A, was significantly alleviated by the injection of whole-length Fkn protein. CONCLUSION: Fkn-induced activation of CX3CR1 by ECs leads to in vivo angiogenesis through two sequential steps: the induction of HIF-1alpha and VEGF-A gene expression by CX3CR1 activation and the subsequent VEGF-A/KDR-induced angiogenesis. The potent induction of angiogenesis by Fkn can be used as a therapeutic strategy for alleviating peripheral ischaemia.
Subject(s)
Angiogenic Proteins/metabolism , Chemokine CX3CL1/metabolism , Endothelial Cells/metabolism , Ischemia/metabolism , Muscle, Skeletal/blood supply , Neovascularization, Physiologic , Receptors, CXCR/metabolism , Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/metabolism , Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2/metabolism , Angiogenic Proteins/pharmacology , Animals , CX3C Chemokine Receptor 1 , Cell Line , Cells, Cultured , Chemokine CX3CL1/genetics , Chemokine CX3CL1/pharmacology , Chick Embryo , Disease Models, Animal , Endothelial Cells/drug effects , Endothelial Cells/enzymology , Hindlimb , Humans , Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit/metabolism , Ischemia/physiopathology , Ischemia/therapy , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1/metabolism , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/metabolism , Neovascularization, Physiologic/drug effects , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Rats , Rats, Sprague-Dawley , Receptors, CXCR/genetics , Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Regional Blood Flow , Time Factors , Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/genetics , rho GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolismABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: We investigated the mechanism by which C-reactive protein (CRP) affects pro-inflammatory activities of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). METHODS AND RESULTS: RT-PCR, flow cytometry, and immunoblotting assays consistently showed the expression of FcgammaRIIa by cultured VSMCs isolated from human coronary arteries. Immunofluorescence staining of human coronary artery plaque showed the co-localization of FcgammaRIIa with alpha-actin(+) VSMCs in atheromatous regions. Confocal microscopic image analysis of H(2)DCFDA-labeled cells showed that CRP induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by FcgammaRIIa(+) HEK293T cells. Moreover, CRP time- and dose-dependently generated ROS in VSMCs through FcgammaRIIa activation. VSMCs mainly express NADPH oxidase 4 isoform (Nox4), the suppression of which using a specific siRNA completely abolished CRP-induced ROS generation by VSMCs. The downregulation of p22(phox), a component of the active Nox4 complex, by transfecting with specific decoy oligomers and functional blocking of FcgammaRIIa not only inhibited the CRP-induced ROS generation but also reduced the degree of AP-1 and NF-kappaB activation, the production of MCP-1, IL-6, and ET-1, and the apoptotic changes of VSMCs in response to CRP. CONCLUSIONS: CRP-induced ROS generation by VSMCs, which requires functional activation of FcgammaRIIa and NADPH oxidase 4, orchestrates pro-inflammatory activities of VSMCs and may eventually promote atherogenesis and plaque rupture.
