Measuring and Influencing Behavior Change in Dietary Intake: Integrated Photovoice Approach in Nutrition Interventions in Eastern Kenya.

A study conducted in two wards of Tharaka Nithi subcounty in Kenya documented the impact of using photovoice as a learning tool to build awareness about diets in order to influence behavior change, as well as a method to measure dietary intake. After a year's nutrition awareness drive using Smart Food branding, in the intervention area, a total of 60 participants from intervention and control areas were identified for the photovoice exercise. The analysis showed household and women's dietary diversity scores to be higher in the intervention group by 35% and 45%, respectively. An estimate of nutrient intake revealed a higher intake of calories, protein, calcium, iron and zinc ranging from 70% to 205% in the intervention group. Qualitative feedback on the photovoice approach reflected increased nutrition awareness and behavior change. Results showed the efficacy of the approach in evaluating diets while simultaneously improving participants' realization of what they were consuming using images captured and a one-on-one discussion with nutritionists. The improvement in dietary diversity scores reflected the effectiveness of this creative participatory and branded approach in imparting a strong message on and enthusiasm for learning about nutrition, resulting in behavior change.

Changing Perception through a Participatory Approach by Involving Adolescent School Children in Evaluating Smart Food Dishes in School Feeding Programs - Real-Time Experience from Central and Northern Tanzania.

The study aimed to test the prospects for, and acceptance of, pigeonpea and finger millet-based dishes in a school feeding program for 2822 adolescents' in Central Tanzania. The focus was on incorporating nutritious and resilient crops like finger millet and pigeonpea through a participatory approach involving series of theoretical and practical training sessions, for the period of 6 months on the nutritional quality and sensory characteristics of these two unexplored foods in Tanzania. Sharing knowledge on the nutritional value of these crops and involving students in the acceptance study changed their negative perception of finger millet and pigeonpea by 79.5% and 70.3%, respectively. Fifteen months after the study period, schools were still continued feeding the dishes and more than 95% of the students wanted to eat the finger millet and pigeonpea dishes at school. Around 84.2% of the students wanted to include pigeonpea 2-7 times a week and 79.6% of the students wanted to include finger millet on all 7 days in school meal. The study proved that it is possible to change food perceptions and bring about behavior change by sharing knowledge on their benefits and by engaging the consumers through a participatory and culturally appropriate approach.

Reducing Child Undernutrition through Dietary Diversification, Reduced Aflatoxin Exposure, and Improved Hygiene Practices: The Immediate Impacts in Central Tanzania.

The study aimed to quantify the immediate effects of dietary diversification, food safety, and hygiene interventions on child undernutrition in four rural villages in Kongwa district of central Tanzania. One hundred mothers with their children of less than 24 months old were recruited for this study. The difference-in-difference (DID) method was used to assess the effects of intensive intervention through a learning-by-doing process on the topic of aflatoxin free diversified food utilization and improved hygiene practices. Periodic anthropometric measurements were conducted on the 0th, 7th, 14th, and 21st days, and DID estimator showed the significant and positive average marginal effects of the intervention on Z-Scores being 0.459, 0.252, and 0.493 for wasting, stunting, and underweight, respectively. Notably, at the end of the study, the mean aflatoxin M1 level in urine samples decreased by 64% in the intervention group, while it decreased by 11% in the control group. The study provides quantitative evidence on intensive 21-day training for mothers incorporating integrated technologies yielded positive impacts on their children's nutritional outcomes.

Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Malawian Farmers on Pre- and Post-Harvest Crop Management to Mitigate Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut, Maize and Sorghum-Implication for Behavioral Change.

A knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) study was conducted in three districts of Malawi to test whether the training had resulted in increased knowledge and adoption of recommended pre- and post-harvest crop management practices, and their contribution to reducing aflatoxin contamination in groundnut, maize and sorghum. The study was conducted with 900 farmers at the baseline and 624 farmers at the end-line, while 726 and 696 harvested crop samples were collected for aflatoxin testing at the baseline and end-line, respectively. Results show that the knowledge and practice of pre- and post-harvest crop management for mitigating aflatoxin were inadequate among the farmers at the baseline but somewhat improved after the training as shown at the end-line. As a result, despite unfavorable weather, the mean aflatoxin contamination level in their grain samples decreased from 83.6 to 55.8 ppb (p < 0.001). However, it was also noted that increased knowledge did not significantly change farmers' attitude toward not consuming grade-outs because of economic incentive incompatibility, leaving potential for improving the practices further. This existing gap in the adoption of aflatoxin mitigation practices calls for approaches that take into account farmers' needs and incentives to attain sustainable behavioral change.

Aflatoxin B1 levels in groundnut products from local markets in Zambia.

In Zambia, groundnut products (milled groundnut powder, groundnut kernels) are mostly sold in under-regulated markets. Coupled with the lack of quality enforcement in such markets, consumers may be at risk to aflatoxin exposure. However, the level of aflatoxin contamination in these products is not known. Compared to groundnut kernels, milled groundnut powder obscures visual indicators of aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts such as moldiness, discoloration, insect damage or kernel damage. A survey was therefore conducted from 2012 to 2014, to estimate and compare aflatoxin levels in these products (n = 202), purchased from markets in important groundnut growing districts and in urban areas. Samples of whole groundnut kernels (n = 163) and milled groundnut powder (n = 39) were analysed for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Results showed substantial AFB1 contamination levels in both types of groundnut products with maximum AFB1 levels of 11,100 µg/kg (groundnut kernels) and 3000 µg/kg (milled groundnut powder). However, paired t test analysis showed that AFB1 contamination levels in milled groundnut powder were not always significantly higher (P > 0.05) than those in groundnut kernels. Even for products from the same vendor, AFB1 levels were not consistently higher in milled groundnut powder than in whole groundnut kernels. This suggests that vendors do not systematically sort out whole groundnut kernels of visually poor quality for milling. However, the overall contamination levels of groundnut products with AFB1 were found to be alarmingly high in all years and locations. Therefore, solutions are needed to reduce aflatoxin levels in such under-regulated markets.

A Case for Regular Aflatoxin Monitoring in Peanut Butter in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from a 3-Year Survey in Zambia.

A 3-year comprehensive analysis of aflatoxin contamination in peanut butter was conducted in Zambia, sub-Saharan Africa. The study analyzed 954 containers of 24 local and imported peanut butter brands collected from shops in Chipata, Mambwe, Petauke, Katete, and Nyimba districts and also in Lusaka from 2012 to 2014. For analysis, a sample included six containers of a single brand, from the same processing batch number and the same shop. Each container was quantitatively analyzed for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in six replicates by using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; thus, aflatoxin contamination level of a given sample was derived from an average of 36 test values. Results showed that 73% of the brands tested in 2012 were contaminated with AFB1 levels >20 µg/kg and ranged up to 130 µg/kg. In 2013, 80% of the brands were contaminated with AFB1 levels >20 µg/kg and ranged up to 10,740 µg/kg. Compared with brand data from 2012 and 2013, fewer brands in 2014, i.e., 53%, had aflatoxin B1 levels >20 µg/kg and ranged up to 1,000 µg/kg. Of the eight brands tested repeatedly across the 3-year period, none consistently averaged ≤20 µg/kg. Our survey clearly demonstrates the regular occurrence of high levels of AF B1 in peanut butter in Zambia. Considering that some of the brands tested originated from neighboring countries such as Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, the current findings provide a sub-Saharan regional perspective regarding the safety of peanut butter.

SSR genetic diversity assessment of popular pigeonpea varieties in Malawi reveals unique fingerprints

Background: Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) is a drought tolerant legume of the Fabaceae family and the only cultivated species in the genus Cajanus. It is mainly cultivated in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Oceania, Africa and America. In Malawi, it is grown as a source of food and income and for soil improvement in intercropping systems. However, varietal contamination due to natural outcrossing causes significant quality reduction and yield losses. In this study, 48 polymorphic SSR markers were used to assess the diversity among all pigeonpea varieties cultivated in Malawi to determine if a genetic fingerprint could be identified to distinguish the popular varieties. Results: A total of 212 alleles were observed with an average of 5.58 alleles per marker and a maximum of 14 alleles produced by CCttc019 (Marker 40). Polymorphic information content (PIC), ranged from 0.03 to 0.89 with an average of 0.30. A neighbor-joining tree produced 4 clusters. The most commonly cultivated varieties, which include released varieties and cultivated land races, were well-spread across all the clusters observed, indicating that they generally represented the genetic diversity available in Malawi, although substantial variation was evident that can still be exploited through further breeding. Conclusion: Screening of the allelic data associated with the five most popular cultivated varieties, revealed 6 markers - CCB1, CCB7, Ccac035, CCttc003, Ccac026 and CCttc019 - which displayed unique allelic profiles for each of the five varieties. This genetic fingerprint can potentially be applied for seed certification to confirm the genetic purity of seeds that are delivered to Malawi farmers.

Identification of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) SSR markers suitable for multiple resistance traits QTL mapping in African germplasm

Background This study aimed to identify and select informative Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers that may be linked to resistance to important groundnut diseases such as Early Leaf Spot, Groundnut Rosette Disease, rust and aflatoxin contamination. To this end, 799 markers were screened across 16 farmer preferred and other cultivated African groundnut varieties that are routinely used in groundnut improvement, some with known resistance traits. Results The SSR markers amplified 817 loci and were graded on a scale of 1 to 4 according to successful amplification and ease of scoring of amplified alleles. Of these, 376 markers exhibited Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) values ranging from 0.06 to 0.86, with 1476 alleles detected at an average of 3.7 alleles per locus. The remaining 423 markers were either monomorphic or did not work well. The best performing polymorphic markers were subsequently used to construct a dissimilarity matrix that indicated the relatedness of the varieties in order to aid selection of appropriately diverse parents for groundnut improvement. The closest related varieties were MGV5 and ICGV-SM 90704 and most distant were Chalimbana and 47-10. The mean dissimilarity value was 0.51, ranging from 0.34 to 0.66. Discussion Of the 376 informative markers identified in this study, 139 (37%) have previously been mapped to the Arachis genome and can now be employed in Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) mapping and the additional 237 markers identified can be used to improve the efficiency of introgression of resistance to multiple important biotic constraints into farmer-preferred varieties of Sub-Saharan Africa.