Comparison of ventilatory and oxygen consumption measurements of yearling Thoroughbred colts and fillies exercising unridden on an all-weather track.

Sex effects on ventilatory and oxygen consumption (V̇O2) measurements during exercise have been identified in humans. This study's aim was to evaluate the hypothesis that there are sex effects on ventilatory and V̇O2 measurements in exercising, untrained yearling Thoroughbreds (Tb). Forty-one Tbs (16 colts, 25 fillies; 19.8 ± 1.4 months old) were recruited. Physiological, ventilatory and exercise data were gathered from horses exercising unridden at high intensity on an all-weather track from a global positioning-heart rate unit and a portable ergospirometry system. Data were analysed with an unpaired Student's t-test and the Benjamini-Hochberg correction for multiple testing (P ≤ 0.05 significant). Mean bodyweight (BW, P = 0.002) and wither height (P = 0.04) were greater for colts than fillies. There were no differences in physiological and exercise data and absolute peak V̇O2 between groups. However, fillies had a higher mass specific peak V̇O2 (P = 0.03) than colts (121.5 ± 21.6 mL/kg.min vs. 111.9 ± 27.4 mL/kg.min). The peak breathing frequency was greater for fillies (P < 0.001) while the peak inspiratory (P < 0.001) and expiratory air flow (P < 0.001), peak expiratory tidal volume (VTE; P < 0.001) and peak minute ventilation (V̇E; P = 0.01) were greater for colts; there were no differences for peak VTE and V̇E when adjusted for BW. Differences in BW explain the differences in mass specific peak V̇O2 between groups. Given their morphological differences, it is likely that lung volumes and airway diameters are smaller for fillies, resulting in greater resistance and lower air flows and volumes. Further research is required to investigate the ventilatory differences and how they may change with maturation and impact performance.

Validation of masks for determination of V̇O2 max in horses exercising at high intensity.

BACKGROUND: The need for a horse to be ridden while wearing a measurement device that allows unrestricted ventilation and gas exchange has hampered accurate measurement of its maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2 max) under field conditions. OBJECTIVES: Design and validate a facemask with the potential to measure V̇O2 max accurately in the field. STUDY DESIGN: Experiment with 6 × 6 Latin square design. METHODS: Two variations of a mask and associated electronic control module (ECM) were designed to enable breath-by-breath measurement of airflows through two 7.8 cm diameter pneumotachometers located 7.5 cm in front of each narus. The ECM was comprised of an analogue-to-digital converter and a lithium-ion battery that provided power and signal filtering to the pneumotachometers and an oxygen sensing cell, and powered a pump connected to gas sampling ports between the nares and pneumotachometers. Airflow and oxygen content of inspired and expired gases were recorded through the ECM and electronically transferred to a notebook. V̇O2 was determined from these recordings using a customised software program. Mask B encased the lower jaw. Mask R left the jaw free so the horse could wear a bit if ridden. V̇O2 max and arterial blood gases were measured in 6 horses during multiple treadmill tests. Each mask was worn twice and results compared to those from an established open flow-through system (O) by ANOVA-RM (P<0.05). System utility was evaluated using the intraclass correlation coefficient of 4 independent raters. RESULTS: Blood gases and V̇O2 max (151.9±7.0 [mean±s.d.; O], 151.5±9.6 [B], 149.5±7.5 [R] ml/[kg.min]) were not different between masks. V̇O2 max measures were reproducible for each mask. Intraclass correlation coefficient between raters = 0.99. MAIN LIMITATIONS: Some rebreathing of expired air from mask dead space. CONCLUSION: Masks capable of measuring V̇O2 max during treadmill exercise were developed, tested and found to be accurate. Mask R has potential application to measurement of V̇O2 max under field conditions.

Changes in arterial, mixed venous and intraerythrocytic ion concentrations during prolonged exercise.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Prolonged equine exercise can cause hypochloraemic alkalosis and hypokalaemia secondary to the loss of hypertonic sweat. Movement of ions in and out of erythrocytes during exercise may help regulate acid-base balance and changes in plasma ion concentrations. The extent to which this happens during prolonged equine exercise has not been reported. OBJECTIVES: To measure changes in blood gases and major plasma and intraerythrocytic (iRBC) ion concentrations of horses undergoing prolonged submaximal exercise. METHODS: Six horses were trotted at ∼ 30% VO2max on a treadmill for 105 min. Arterial ((a)) and mixed venous ((v)) blood samples were collected every 15 min, and pre- and post exercise. Blood gases and plasma (pl) concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride and protein were measured and their iRBC concentrations calculated and compared (P < 0.05). RESULTS: P(a)CO(2) decreased in all horses. pl[Cl(-)]v decreased and [HCO(3)(-)]v increased. Due to the exhalation of CO(2) and chloride shifting, [HCO(3)(-)]a<[HCO(3)(-)]v, pl[Cl(-)]a>pl[Cl(-)]v)and iRBC[Cl(-)]aiRBC[K(+)]v. Conversely, iRBC[Na(+)]a

Evaluation of a mask for breath-by-breath respirometry during exercise in horses.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The ability to obtain breath-by-breath measures of ventilatory mechanics for the entirety of an exercise test, regardless of speed(s) or duration enables evaluations of equine ventilation during exercise that are necessary for assessments of performance. OBJECTIVE: Evaluation of a new ergospirometer (Quadflow; QF) system's accuracy and repeatability for measuring pulmonary variables in contrast to the established pneumotachometer-based system (control) and assessment of its effects, if any, on exercise capacity at high speeds. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Five Thoroughbred horses each performed 10 incremental exercise tests to fatigue, 5 with the QF system and 5 with an open-circuit flow system. Measures of pulmonary variables were evaluated to determine repeatability. Heart rate, pulmonary variables, arterial blood gases, distance run and time to fatigue measured with each system were compared to assess similarity of results and effect on performance. RESULTS: Results from both systems had high repeatability with low coefficients of variation. The QF was associated with greater resistance to airflow, higher breathing rate at submaximal speeds, lower minute ventilation and peak inspiratory and expiratory airflows, greater acidaemia, hypoxaemia and hypercapnoea, and decreased total run time and total distance run when compared to control system results. CONCLUSION: The greater resistance of the QF was responsible for altered blood gases, respiratory parameters and performance when compared to the control mask. The QF system reliably measured equine pulmonary airflows and volumes and is suitable for research and clinical use provided optimal gas exchange and best possible physical performance are not required.

Effects of intravenous aminocaproic acid on exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH).

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The antifibrinolytic, 6-aminohexanoic acid, also named aminocaproic acid (ACA), has been used empirically as a treatment for exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH) on the unsubstantiated basis that transient coagulation dysfunction may contribute to its development. OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of ACA on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) erythrocyte counts in horses performing treadmill exercise at an intensity greater than that needed to reach maximal oxygen consumption. METHODS: Eight Thoroughbreds were exercised to fatigue 3 times on a 10% inclined treadmill at a speed for which the calculated oxygen requirement was 1.15 times VO2max. Horses were treated with a saline placebo, 2 and 7 g ACA i.v. 4 h before exercise, with a crossover design being used to determine the order of the injections. Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage severity was quantified via the erythrocyte count in BALF. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was collected 4 h before and 30-60 min post exercise. Results were expressed as mean ± s.e.m. and analysed by one way repeated measures ANOVA (P < 0.05). RESULTS: Aminocaproic acid administration had no effect on any measured variables (VO2max = 48 ± 3.0 [C]; 148 ± 3.0 [2 g ACA]; 145 ± 3.0 [7 g ACA] ml/kg bwt/min, respectively; run time = 77 ± 3 [C]; 75 ± 2 [2 g ACA]; 79 ± 3 [7 g ACA] seconds, respectively). All horses developed EIPH: 1691 ± 690 vs. 9637 ± 3923 (C); 2149 ± 935 vs. 3378 ± 893 (2 g ACA); 1058 ± 340 vs. 4533 ± 791 (7 g ACA) erythrocytes/µl pre- vs. post exercise recovered in BALF, respectively. CONCLUSION: Aminocaproic acid was not effective in preventing or reducing the severity of EIPH or improving performance under the exercise conditions of this study.

Is improved high speed performance following frusemide administration due to diuresis-induced weight loss or reduced severity of exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage?

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Prerace administration of frusemide to horses has been linked with a significant improvement in racing performance, but the basis for this improvement is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To test whether improved performance with prerace administration of frusemide is due to the drug's diuresis-induced weight loss rather than its apparent alleviation of exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH). METHODS: Eight thoroughbred horses underwent 3 trials in a random order, 2 or 3 weeks apart: control (C), frusemide/unburdened (FU), and frusemide/burdened (FB). None of the horses were known to have exhibited post-exercise epistaxis or endoscopic evidence of EIPH. Endoscope-guided bronchoalveolar lavages (BALs) were performed before and after each horse completed a standardised exercise test (SET) on an inclined treadmill to assess semi-quantitatively the volume of EIPH. For C, horses received an i.v. saline placebo injection (5 ml) and were unburdened while performing the SET. With FU, horses received frusemide (0.5 mg/kg) and were also unburdened. For FB, horses received frusemide and were burdened with weight equal to that lost during the 4 h post frusemide injection period. Erythrocyte number in BAL fluid, mass specific VO2max, time and distance for the entire SET as well as at maximum speed were recorded. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted on all results. RESULTS: Mass specific VO2max was significantly higher for the FU than for FB or C. Mass specific VO2max for FB and C were not different. More RBCs were found in BAL samples after C runs than after both FU and FB trial runs. Horses with the frusemide treatment (either burdened or unburdened) produced less EIPH than in the C trial, but their mass specific VO2max values were higher on the FU trial alone. For FU, horses ran longer at 115% VO2max than under C or FB conditions. CONCLUSION AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Improvement of performance in the furosemide trials was due more to the weight-loss related effects of the drug than its apparent alleviation of EIPH. Further research is warranted with the same or similar project design, but with a larger sample size and with horses known to have more severe EIPH.

Changes in arterial, mixed venous and intraerythrocytic concentrations of ions in supramaximally exercising horses.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Horses experience major perturbations in acid-base balance during supramaximal exercise. Ion movement in and out of erythrocytes (RBCs) is believed to be important in maintaining acid-base balance but it is unclear as to the extent to which this happens, nor how it affects single measurements of ion concentrations in arterial and venous blood. OBJECTIVES: To clarify the role RBCs play in mitigating perturbations in acid-base balance during high speed exercise in horses, and to describe associated differences in arterial (a) and mixed venous (v) concentrations of key ions. METHODS: Six exercise-trained Thoroughbreds galloped to fatigue at speeds calculated to have an oxygen demand that was 115% of the VO2max. Blood samples (a and v) were collected pre-exercise, during warm-up, at fatigue, and immediately post exercise. Packed cell volume (PCV), pH, PCO2, and plasma concentrations of bicarbonate (HCOP3-), chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and lactate (Lac-) and strong ion difference (SID) were determined, and RBC concentrations of Lac- and electrolytes calculated for each sample. Data were analysed using a 2-way ANOVA for repeated measures testing for effects of sampling time and site (P<0.05). RESULTS: Plasma and RBC [Cl-] were increased with hypercapnoea and acidaemia. [HCO3-]v was greater than pre-exercise values at fatigue, although [HCO3l]a was lower. Hyperkalaemia and decreased RBC [K+] were evident at fatigue, as was an increased RBC [Na+]. Plasma [K+] started to decrease as soon as exercise ceased and Na+ began to move back onto RBCs in exchange for K+. Concentrations of all measures of Lac- rose from fatigue to post exercise. The SID decreased with exercise and was higher in v at fatigue and post exercise, reflecting the decrease in pH. CONCLUSIONS: RBCs act as a repository for lactate, and therefore the increase in PCV facilitates the maintenance of the muscle to plasma Lac- diffusion gradient during exercise. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This serves to keep intramuscular [Lac-] lower than it would otherwise be and, because of the link between Lac- accumulation, pH decrease and the onset of fatigue, may help delay the onset of fatigue.

Interaction of saddle girth construction and tension on respiratory mechanics and gas exchange during supramaximal treadmill exercise in horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of girth construction and tension on respiratory mechanics and gas exchange during supramaximal treadmill exercise in horses. METHODS: Six healthy detrained Thoroughbred horses were exercised on a treadmill inclined at 10% at 110% VO2max. Horses were instrumented for respiratory mechanics and gas exchange studies, and data were recorded during incremental exercise tests. The animals were exercised for 2 min at 40% VO2max, and samples and measurements were collected at 1 min 45 sec. After 2 min, speed was increased to that estimated at 110% VO2max and data was collected at 45 sec, 90 sec and every 30 sec thereafter at this speed until the horses fatigued. Horses were run on three occasions with the same racing saddle and saddle packing but using two different girths, either an elastic girth (EG) or a standard canvas girth (SCG) which is nonelastic. A run with 5 kg tension applied to a standard canvas girth was the control for each horse, with additional runs at 15 kg using either the standard canvas girth or using the elastic girth. The runs were randomised and tensions applied were measured at end exhalation whilst at rest. RESULTS: Increasing girth tension was not associated with changes in respiratory mechanical or gas exchange properties. Although girths tightened to 15 kg tension had short run to fatigue times this was not found to be significantly different to girths set at 5 kg resting tension. Girth tensions declined at end exhalation in horses nearing fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: Loss in performance associated with high girth tensions is not due to alteration of respiratory mechanics. Loss in performance may be related to inspiratory muscles working at suboptimal lengths due to thoracic compression or compression of musculature around the chest. However, these changes are not reflected in altered respiratory mechanical or gas exchange properties measured during tidal breathing during supramaximal exercise. Other factors may hasten the onset of fatigue when horses exercise with tight girths and further studies are required to determine why excessively tight girths affect performance.

Effects of different volumes of autologous blood instilled into the airways of horses on pulmonary function during treadmill exercise.

Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage has been associated with reduced performance in racing horses. However, it is unclear what volume of blood loss into the lungs impairs performance. The purpose of the present study was to determine the minimal volume of autologous Horses blood instilled into the airways that significantly affects performance and pulmonary function in exercising horses. Six Thoroughbred horses performed 2 exercise bouts on each of 4 treatment test days. Each exercise bout consisted of a 2 min warm-up at 4 m/s followed by running at a speed equivalent to 115% VO2max, until fatigued. For the first run of each testing day there was no treatment (baseline run). Prior to the second run either there was no treatment (control) or 100, 50 or 25 ml of autologous blood was instilled into the airways on the right hand side. During each test, arterial and mixed venous blood was sampled, and VO2, VCO2 and breathing mechanics measured. The results of this study indicate that unilateral instillation of 100 ml of blood or less into the airways of horses does not significantly affect pulmonary function, breathing mechanics or performance during supramaximal exercise. The results of this study may be helpful in determining the significance of exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage on racing performance.

Effects of inhalation of albuterol sulphate, ipratroprium bromide and frusemide on breathing mechanics and gas exchange in healthy exercising horses.

The possibility that pre-exercise inhalation of a bronchodilator by healthy horses could improve their mechanics of breathing and enhance performance was investigated. Ipratropium bromide (0.35 microg/kg bwt; n = 7) was administered by nebulisation 30 min before exercise and frusemide (1 mg/kg bwt; n = 6) was given in the same manner 2 h before exercise. Albuterol sulphate (360 and 720 microg; n = 7) were administered with a metered dose inhaler 2 h before exercise. Each drug was investigated independently of the others using cross-over protocols. Horses completed incremental exercise tests and oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, arterial blood gases, heart rate and measures of breathing mechanics including total pulmonary resistance (RL) and nasopharyngeal resistance (RU) were determined for each exercise intensity. The resistance of the lower airways was calculated subsequently from the difference between RL and RU. None of the drugs tested had an effect on any of the variables measured, possibly because maximal bronchodilation is stimulated in healthy horses by the normal sympathoadrenergic response to exercise. Therefore, the pre-exercise inhalation of a bronchodilator by a healthy horse is unlikely to improve performance capacity.

Cost analysis helps evaluate contract profitability.

A cost-accounting analysis can help group practices assess their costs of doing business and determine the profitability of managed care contracts. Group practices also can use cost accounting to develop budgets and financial benchmarks. To begin a cost analysis, group practices need to determine their revenue and cost centers. Then they can allocate their costs to each center, using an appropriate allocation basis. The next step is to calculate costs per procedure. The results can be used to evaluate operational cost efficiency as well as help negotiate managed care contracts.

Effect of breathing frequency and airflow on pulmonary function in high-intensity equine exercise.

It has been postulated that the hypoxaemia and hypercapnoea that characterize strenuous equine exercise are partly due to flow limitations imposed by high breathing frequencies (fb), and that gas exchange would be improved if fb could be lowered. To evaluate this possibility, 6 Thoroughbred horses underwent 4 incremental treadmill exercise tests at inclines of 0, 5, 10 and 25%, respectively. In the test, horses were given a warm-up for 2 min, then ran sequentially for 1 min each at 60, 100 and 115% VO2max. Oxygen consumption (VO2), blood gas tensions (PaO2, PaCO2), fb, tidal volume (VT), minute ventilation (Ve), transpulmonary pressure (Ptp), peak inspiratory and expiratory airflows (VI, VE) and work of breathing (Wrm) were determined during the last 15 s of exercise at each intensity. The only effect of fb on PaO2 was seen at 60% VO2max. Also, maximal transpulmonary pressure difference (delta Ptpmax), and peak VI, and VE on a 25% slope were lower than those recorded at the other 3 inclines at 60% VO2max. At 100 and 115% VO2max, the effect of fb was less clear. While fb still differed, the only effects of fb at 100% VO2max were on delta Ptpmax. At 115% VO2max, fb on a 25% incline was lower than that for 0 and 5% slopes. The only other difference noted at this intensity was in VT on 10% slope. However, there was no difference between VTS recorded at inclines of 0, 5 or 25% at 115% VO2max. There was no effect of fb or exercise intensity on Ve at 100 or 115% VO2max. There was no change in PaO2, fb, VT, delta Ptpmax or VI and VE as exercise intensity increased from 60-115% VO2max on slopes of 0, 5 or 10%. However, for exercise on the 25% incline (i.e. with lower fb), each of these parameters increased (or decreased for PaO2) from 60-100%, but not from 100-115% VO2max. Failure of peak airflow and VT to increase when intensity increased was associated with the development of hypoxaemia and hypercapnoea, regardless of slope or fb. It is concluded that while a low fb may have some beneficial effect on gas exchange during submaximal exercise at approximately 60% VO2max, this effect disappears as exercise intensity increases. There appear to be limits to the peak airflows that can be generated by horses during strenuous exercise, and these limits may be reached regardless of fb. Flow limitation per se may play a greater role in the development of exercise-induced hypoxaemia and hypercapnoea in horses than dose fb.

Differences in the ventilatory responses of horses and ponies to exercise of varying intensities.

Horses exercising at > or = approximately 90% VO2max develop arterial hypoxaemia with concurrent hypercapnoea, whereas ponies exercising at comparative levels become hypocapnoeic and maintain arterial oxygen tensions close to resting values. We sought to investigate the possibility that these differences relate to the ventilatory responses of these animals to exercise. Six Thoroughbred horses weighing mean +/- s.e. 501 +/- 27 kg and 5 ponies weighing mean +/- s.e. 164 +/- 18 kg exercised for 2 min on a 10% slope at speeds calculated to require 60% VO2max and for at least 1 min at speeds calculated to require 115% VO2max. Oxygen consumption (VO2), arterial oxygen (PaO2) and carbon dioxide (PaCO2) tensions, acid-base balance, tidal volume (VT), minute ventilation (VE), peak inspiratory (VImax) and expiratory (VEmax) flow, and maximal changes in transpulmonary pressures (delta PtPmax) were measured immediately before exercise and in the last 15 s of exercise at each intensity. The results confirmed that, unlike horses, ponies do not become hypoxaemic or hypercapnoeic during exercise. Despite having a higher delta PtPmax, higher VImax and VEmax and VE/kg0.75 at the same relative intensities, horses were less capable of mounting an appropriate ventilatory response to exercise. This was reflected by lower mass specific and metabolic weight-based ventilations at similar absolute workloads, and their higher PaCO2 and arterial HCO3-[, and lower ventilatory equivalent for oxygen (VE/VO2). This suggests that horses become hypoxaemic and hypercapnoeic at work loads > or = approximately 90% VO2max because their metabolic demand surpasses the capacity of their ventilatory system to meet this demand. Because ponies are less capable athletes, they can match their ventilatory response to their metabolic requirements.