Chemical synthesis of tripeptide thioesters for the biotechnological incorporation into the myxobacterial secondary metabolite argyrin via mutasynthesis.

The argyrins are secondary metabolites from myxobacteria with antibiotic activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Studying their structure-activity relationship is hampered by the complexity of the chemical total synthesis. Mutasynthesis is a promising approach where simpler and fully synthetic intermediates of the natural product's biosynthesis can be biotechnologically incorporated. Here, we report the synthesis of a series of tripeptide thioesters as mutasynthons containing the native sequence with a dehydroalanine (Dha) Michael acceptor attached to a sarcosine (Sar) and derivatives. Chemical synthesis of the native sequence ᴅ-Ala-Dha-Sar thioester required revision of the sequential peptide synthesis into a convergent strategy where the thioester with sarcosine was formed before coupling to the Dha-containing dipeptide.

Engineered Flumazenil Recognition Site Provides Mechanistic Insight Governing Benzodiazepine Modulation in GABAA Receptors.

The anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle-relaxant, and sedative-hypnotic effects of benzodiazepine site ligands are mainly elicited by allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors via their extracellular αx+/γ2- ( x = 1, 2, 3, 5) interfaces. In addition, a low affinity binding site at the homologous α+/ß- interfaces was reported for some benzodiazepine site ligands. Classical benzodiazepines and pyrazoloquinolinones have been used as molecular probes to develop structure-activity relationship models for benzodiazepine site activity. Considering all possible α+/ß- and α+/γ- interfaces, such ligands potentially interact with as many as 36 interfaces, giving rise to undesired side effects. Understanding the binding modes at their binding sites will enable rational strategies to design ligands with desired selectivity profiles. Here, we compared benzodiazepine site ligand interactions in the high affinity α1+/γ2- site with the homologous α1+/ß3- site using a successive mutational approach. We incorporated key amino acids known to contribute to high affinity benzodiazepine binding of the γ2- subunit into the ß3- subunit, resulting in a quadruple mutant ß3(4mut) with high affinity flumazenil (Ro 15-1788) binding properties. Intriguingly, some benzodiazepine site ligands displayed positive allosteric modulation in the tested recombinant α1ß3(4mut) constructs while diazepam remained inactive. Consequently, we performed in silico molecular docking in the wildtype receptor and the quadruple mutant. The results led to the conclusion that different benzodiazepine site ligands seem to use distinct binding modes, rather than a common binding mode. These findings provide structural hypotheses for the future optimization of both benzodiazepine site ligands, and ligands that interact with the homologous α+/ß- sites.

SAR-Guided Scoring Function and Mutational Validation Reveal the Binding Mode of CGS-8216 at the α1+/γ2- Benzodiazepine Site.

The structural resolution of a bound ligand-receptor complex is a key asset to efficiently drive lead optimization in drug design. However, structural resolution of many drug targets still remains a challenging endeavor. In the absence of structural knowledge, scientists resort to structure-activity relationships (SARs) to promote compound development. In this study, we incorporated ligand-based knowledge to formulate a docking scoring function that evaluates binding poses for their agreement with a known SAR. We showcased this protocol by identifying the binding mode of the pyrazoloquinolinone (PQ) CGS-8216 at the benzodiazepine binding site of the GABAA receptor. Further evaluation of the final pose by molecular dynamics and free energy simulations revealed a close proximity between the pendent phenyl ring of the PQ and γ2D56, congruent with the low potency of carboxyphenyl analogues. Ultimately, we introduced the γ2D56A mutation and in fact observed a 10-fold potency increase in the carboxyphenyl analogue, providing experimental evidence in favor of our binding hypothesis.

Different Benzodiazepines Bind with Distinct Binding Modes to GABAA Receptors.

Benzodiazepines are clinically relevant drugs that bind to GABAA neurotransmitter receptors at the α+/γ2- interfaces and thereby enhance GABA-induced chloride ion flux leading to neuronal hyperpolarization. However, the structural basis of benzodiazepine interactions with their high-affinity site at GABAA receptors is controversially debated in the literature, and in silico studies led to discrepant binding mode hypotheses. In this study, computational docking of diazepam into α+/γ2- homology models suggested that a chiral methyl group, which is known to promote preferred binding to α5-containing GABAA receptors (position 3 of the seven-membered diazepine ring), could possibly provide experimental evidence that supports or contradicts the proposed binding modes. Thus, we investigated three pairs of R and S isomers of structurally different chemotypes, namely, diazepam, imidazobenzodiazepine, and triazolam derivatives. We used radioligand displacement studies as well as two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology in α1ß3γ2-, α2ß3γ2-, α3ß3γ2-, and α5ß3γ2-containing GABAA receptors to determine the ligand binding and functional activity of the three chemotypes. Interestingly, both imidazobenzodiazepine isomers displayed comparable binding affinities, while for the other two chemotypes, a discrepancy in binding affinities of the different isomers was observed. Specifically, the R isomers displayed a loss of binding, whereas the S isomers remained active. These findings are in accordance with the results of our in silico studies suggesting the usage of a different binding mode of imidazobenzodiazepines compared to those of the other two tested chemotypes. Hence, we conclude that different chemically related benzodiazepine ligands interact via distinct binding modes rather than by using a common binding mode.

Towards functional selectivity for α6ß3γ2 GABAA receptors: a series of novel pyrazoloquinolinones.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The GABAA receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, which play an important role in neurotransmission. Their variety of binding sites serves as an appealing target for many clinically relevant drugs. Here, we explored the functional selectivity of modulatory effects at specific extracellular α+/ß- interfaces, using a systematically varied series of pyrazoloquinolinones. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Recombinant GABAA receptors were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and modulatory effects on GABA-elicited currents by the newly synthesized and reference compounds were investigated by the two-electrode voltage clamp method. KEY RESULTS: We identified a new compound which, to the best of our knowledge, shows the highest functional selectivity for positive modulation at α6ß3γ2 GABAA receptors with nearly no residual activity at the other αxß3γ2 (x = 1-5) subtypes. This modulation was independent of affinity for α+/γ- interfaces. Furthermore, we demonstrated for the first time a compound that elicits a negative modulation at specific extracellular α+/ß- interfaces. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: These results constitute a major step towards a potential selective positive modulation of certain α6-containing GABAA receptors, which might be useful to elicit their physiological role. Furthermore, these studies pave the way towards insights into molecular principles that drive positive versus negative allosteric modulation of specific GABAA receptor isoforms.

Molecular tools for GABAA receptors: High affinity ligands for ß1-containing subtypes.

γ-Aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors are pentameric GABA-gated chloride channels that are, in mammalians, drawn from a repertoire of 19 different genes, namely α1-6, ß1-3, γ1-3, δ, ε, θ, π and ρ1-3. The existence of this wide variety of subunits as well as their diverse assembly into different subunit compositions result in miscellaneous receptor subtypes. In combination with the large number of known and putative allosteric binding sites, this leads to a highly complex pharmacology. Recently, a novel binding site at extracellular α+/ß- interfaces was described as the site of modulatory action of several pyrazoloquinolinones. In this study we report a highly potent ligand from this class of compounds with pronounced ß1-selectivity that mainly lacks α-subunit selectivity. It constitutes the most potent ß1-selective positive allosteric modulatory ligand with known binding site. In addition, a proof of concept pyrazoloquinolinone ligand lacking the additional high affinity interaction with the benzodiazepine binding site is presented. Ultimately, such ligands can be used as invaluable molecular tools for the detection of ß1-containing receptor subtypes and the investigation of their abundance and distribution.