Overcoming the field-of-view to diameter trade-off in microendoscopy via computational optrode-array microscopy.

High-resolution microscopy of deep tissue with large field-of-view (FOV) is critical for elucidating organization of cellular structures in plant biology. Microscopy with an implanted probe offers an effective solution. However, there exists a fundamental trade-off between the FOV and probe diameter arising from aberrations inherent in conventional imaging optics (typically, FOV < 30% of diameter). Here, we demonstrate the use of microfabricated non-imaging probes (optrodes) that when combined with a trained machine-learning algorithm is able to achieve FOV of 1x to 5x the probe diameter. Further increase in FOV is achieved by using multiple optrodes in parallel. With a 1 × 2 optrode array, we demonstrate imaging of fluorescent beads (including 30 FPS video), stained plant stem sections and stained living stems. Our demonstration lays the foundation for fast, high-resolution microscopy with large FOV in deep tissue via microfabricated non-imaging probes and advanced machine learning.

A cryptic natural variant allele of BYPASS2 suppresses the bypass1 mutant phenotype.

The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) BYPASS1 (BPS1) gene encodes a protein with no functionally characterized domains, and loss-of-function mutants (e.g. bps1-2 in Col-0) present a severe growth arrest phenotype that is evoked by a root-derived graft-transmissible small molecule that we call dalekin. The root-to-shoot nature of dalekin signaling suggests it could be an endogenous signaling molecule. Here, we report a natural variant screen that allowed us to identify enhancers and suppressors of the bps1-2 mutant phenotype (in Col-0). We identified a strong semi-dominant suppressor in the Apost-1 accession that largely restored shoot development in bps1 and yet continued to overproduce dalekin. Using bulked segregant analysis and allele-specific transgenic complementation, we showed that the suppressor is the Apost-1 allele of a BPS1 paralog, BYPASS2 (BPS2). BPS2 is one of four members of the BPS gene family in Arabidopsis, and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the BPS family is conserved in land plants and the four Arabidopsis paralogs are retained duplicates from whole genome duplications. The strong conservation of BPS1 and paralogous proteins throughout land plants, and the similar functions of paralogs in Arabidopsis, suggests that dalekin signaling might be retained across land plants.

Beyond transcription: compelling open questions in plant RNA biology.

The study of RNAs has become one of the most influential research fields in contemporary biology and biomedicine. In the last few years, new sequencing technologies have produced an explosion of new and exciting discoveries in the field but have also given rise to many open questions. Defining these questions, together with old, long-standing gaps in our knowledge, is the spirit of this article. The breadth of topics within RNA biology research is vast, and every aspect of the biology of these molecules contains countless exciting open questions. Here, we asked 12 groups to discuss their most compelling question among some plant RNA biology topics. The following vignettes cover RNA alternative splicing; RNA dynamics; RNA translation; RNA structures; R-loops; epitranscriptomics; long non-coding RNAs; small RNA production and their functions in crops; small RNAs during gametogenesis and in cross-kingdom RNA interference; and RNA-directed DNA methylation. In each section, we will present the current state-of-the-art in plant RNA biology research before asking the questions that will surely motivate future discoveries in the field. We hope this article will spark a debate about the future perspective on RNA biology and provoke novel reflections in the reader.

DHH1/DDX6-like RNA helicases maintain ephemeral half-lives of stress-response mRNAs.

Gene transcription is counterbalanced by messenger RNA decay processes that regulate transcript quality and quantity. We show here that the evolutionarily conserved DHH1/DDX6-like RNA hellicases of Arabidopsis thaliana control the ephemerality of a subset of cellular mRNAs. These RNA helicases co-localize with key markers of processing bodies and stress granules and contribute to their subcellular dynamics. They function to limit the precocious accumulation and ribosome association of stress-responsive mRNAs involved in auto-immunity and growth inhibition under non-stress conditions. Given the conservation of this RNA helicase subfamily, they may control basal levels of conditionally regulated mRNAs in diverse eukaryotes, accelerating responses without penalty.

Arabidopsis mRNA decay landscape arises from specialized RNA decay substrates, decapping-mediated feedback, and redundancy.

The decay of mRNA plays a vital role in modulating mRNA abundance, which, in turn, influences cellular and organismal processes. In plants and metazoans, three distinct pathways carry out the decay of most cytoplasmic mRNAs: The mRNA decapping complex, which requires the scaffold protein VARICOSE (VCS), removes a protective 5' cap, allowing for 5' to 3' decay via EXORIBONUCLEASE4 (XRN4, XRN1 in metazoans and yeast), and both the exosome and SUPPRESSOR OF VCS (SOV)/DIS3L2 degrade RNAs in the 3' to 5' direction. However, the unique biological contributions of these three pathways, and whether they degrade specialized sets of transcripts, are unknown. In Arabidopsis, the participation of SOV in RNA homeostasis is also unclear, because Arabidopsis sov mutants have a normal phenotype. We carried out mRNA decay analyses in wild-type, sov, vcs, and vcs sov seedlings, and used a mathematical modeling approach to determine decay rates and quantify gene-specific contributions of VCS and SOV to decay. This analysis revealed that VCS (decapping) contributes to decay of 68% of the transcriptome, and, while it initiates degradation of mRNAs with a wide range of decay rates, it especially contributes to decay of short-lived RNAs. Only a few RNAs were clear SOV substrates in that they decayed more slowly in sov mutants. However, 4,506 RNAs showed VCS-dependent feedback in sov that modulated decay rates, and, by inference, transcription, to maintain RNA abundances, suggesting that these RNAs might also be SOV substrates. This feedback was shown to be independent of siRNA activity.

Beyond transcription factors: roles of mRNA decay in regulating gene expression in plants.

Gene expression is typically quantified as RNA abundance, which is influenced by both synthesis (transcription) and decay. Cytoplasmic decay typically initiates by deadenylation, after which decay can occur through any of three cytoplasmic decay pathways. Recent advances reveal several mechanisms by which RNA decay is regulated to control RNA abundance. mRNA can be post-transcriptionally modified, either indirectly through secondary structure or through direct modifications to the transcript itself, sometimes resulting in subsequent changes in mRNA decay rates. mRNA abundances can also be modified by tapping into pathways normally used for RNA quality control. Regulated mRNA decay can also come about through post-translational modification of decapping complex subunits. Likewise, mRNAs can undergo changes in subcellular localization (for example, the deposition of specific mRNAs into processing bodies, or P-bodies, where stabilization and destabilization occur in a transcript- and context-dependent manner). Additionally, specialized functions of mRNA decay pathways were implicated in a genome-wide mRNA decay analysis in Arabidopsis. Advances made using plants are emphasized in this review, but relevant studies from other model systems that highlight RNA decay mechanisms that may also be conserved in plants are discussed.

The Mobile bypass Signal Arrests Shoot Growth by Disrupting Shoot Apical Meristem Maintenance, Cytokinin Signaling, and WUS Transcription Factor Expression.

The bypass1 (bps1) mutant of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) produces a root-sourced compound (the bps signal) that moves to the shoot and is sufficient to arrest growth of a wild-type shoot; however, the mechanism of growth arrest is not understood. Here, we show that the earliest shoot defect arises during germination and is a failure of bps1 mutants to maintain their shoot apical meristem (SAM). This finding suggested that the bps signal might affect expression or function of SAM regulatory genes, and we found WUSCHEL (WUS) expression to be repressed in bps1 mutants. Repression appears to arise from the mobile bps signal, as the bps1 root was sufficient to rapidly down-regulate WUS expression in wild-type shoots. Normally, WUS is regulated by a balance between positive regulation by cytokinin (CK) and negative regulation by CLAVATA (CLV). In bps1, repression of WUS was independent of CLV, and, instead, the bps signal down-regulates CK responses. Cytokinin treatment of bps1 mutants restored both WUS expression and activity, but only in the rib meristem. How the bps signal down-regulates CK remains unknown, though the bps signal was sufficient to repress expression of one CK receptor (AHK4) and one response regulator (AHP6). Together, these data suggest that the bps signal pathway has the potential for long-distance regulation through modification of CK signaling and altering gene expression.

The LSM1-7 Complex Differentially Regulates Arabidopsis Tolerance to Abiotic Stress Conditions by Promoting Selective mRNA Decapping.

In eukaryotes, the decapping machinery is highly conserved and plays an essential role in controlling mRNA stability, a key step in the regulation of gene expression. Yet, the role of mRNA decapping in shaping gene expression profiles in response to environmental cues and the operating molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we provide genetic and molecular evidence that a component of the decapping machinery, the LSM1-7 complex, plays a critical role in plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Our results demonstrate that, depending on the stress, the complex from Arabidopsis thaliana interacts with different selected stress-inducible transcripts targeting them for decapping and subsequent degradation. This interaction ensures the correct turnover of the target transcripts and, consequently, the appropriate patterns of downstream stress-responsive gene expression that are required for plant adaptation. Remarkably, among the selected target transcripts of the LSM1-7 complex are those encoding NCED3 and NCED5, two key enzymes in abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis. We demonstrate that the complex modulates ABA levels in Arabidopsis exposed to cold and high salt by differentially controlling NCED3 and NCED5 mRNA turnover, which represents a new layer of regulation in ABA biosynthesis in response to abiotic stress. Our findings uncover an unanticipated functional plasticity of the mRNA decapping machinery to modulate the relationship between plants and their environment.

The mRNA decay factor PAT1 functions in a pathway including MAP kinase 4 and immune receptor SUMM2.

Multi-layered defense responses are activated in plants upon recognition of invading pathogens. Transmembrane receptors recognize conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and activate MAP kinase cascades, which regulate changes in gene expression to produce appropriate immune responses. For example, Arabidopsis MAP kinase 4 (MPK4) regulates the expression of a subset of defense genes via at least one WRKY transcription factor. We report here that MPK4 is found in complexes in vivo with PAT1, a component of the mRNA decapping machinery. PAT1 is also phosphorylated by MPK4 and, upon flagellin PAMP treatment, PAT1 accumulates and localizes to cytoplasmic processing (P) bodies which are sites for mRNA decay. Pat1 mutants exhibit dwarfism and de-repressed immunity dependent on the immune receptor SUMM2. Since mRNA decapping is a critical step in mRNA turnover, linking MPK4 to mRNA decay via PAT1 provides another mechanism by which MPK4 may rapidly instigate immune responses.

Long-distance signaling in bypass1 mutants: bioassay development reveals the bps signal to be a metabolite.

Root-to-shoot signaling is used by plants to coordinate shoot development with the conditions experienced by the roots. A mobile and biologically active compound, the bps signal, is over-produced in roots of an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant called bypass1 (bps1), and might also be a normally produced signaling molecule in wild-type plants. Our goal is to identify the bps signal chemically, which will then allow us to assess its production in normal plants. To identify any signaling molecule, a bioassay is required, and here we describe the development of a robust, simple, and quantitative bioassay for the bps signal. The developed bioassay follows the growth-reducing activity of the bps signal using the pCYCB1;1::GUS cell cycle marker. Wild-type plants carrying this marker, and provided the bps signal through either grafts or metabolite extracts, showed reduced cell division. By contrast, control grafts and treatment with control extracts showed no change in pCYCB1;1::GUS expression. To determine the chemical nature of the bps signal, extracts were treated with RNase A, Proteinase K, or heat. None of these treatments diminished the activity of bps1 extracts, suggesting that the active molecule might be a metabolite. This bioassay will be useful for future biochemical fractionation and analysis directed toward bps signal identification.

The bps signal: embryonic arrest from an auxin-independent mechanism in bypass triple mutants.

Long-distance signaling is essential for coordination of plant development and environmental responses. We originally isolated a tiny mutant named bypass1 (bps1), which has defects in shoot and root development. The bps1 roots overproduce a mobile signal (bps signal) that arrests both root and shoot development. Our recent study demonstrated that all three BPS gene family members prevent ectopic synthesis of the same bps signal.bps multiple mutants show progressively more severe developmental defects. An embryogenesis analysis revealed abnormal cell divisions in all meristem lineages of bps triple mutants. These defects appear to be auxin independent, and arise prior to changes in PLT1 and PLT2 expression.

In the absence of BYPASS1-related gene function, the bps signal disrupts embryogenesis by an auxin-independent mechanism.

Development is often coordinated by biologically active mobile compounds that move between cells or organs. Arabidopsis mutants with defects in the BYPASS1 (BPS1) gene overproduce an active mobile compound that moves from the root to the shoot and inhibits growth. Here, we describe two related Arabidopsis genes, BPS2 and BPS3. Analyses of single, double and triple mutants revealed that all three genes regulate production of the same mobile compound, the bps signal, with BPS1 having the largest role. The triple mutant had a severe embryo defect, including the failure to properly establish provascular tissue, the shoot meristem and the root meristem. Aberrant expression of PINFORMED1, DR5, PLETHORA1, PLETHORA2 and WUSCHEL-LIKE HOMEOBOX5 were found in heart-stage bps triple-mutant embryos. However, auxin-induced gene expression, and localization of the PIN1 auxin efflux transporter, were intact in bps1 mutants, suggesting that the primary target of the bps signal is independent of auxin response. Thus, the bps signal identifies a novel signaling pathway that regulates patterning and growth in parallel with auxin signaling, in multiple tissues and at multiple developmental stages.

BYPASS1: synthesis of the mobile root-derived signal requires active root growth and arrests early leaf development.

BACKGROUND: The Arabidopsis bypass1 (bps1) mutant root produces a biologically active mobile compound that induces shoot growth arrest. However it is unknown whether the root retains the capacity to synthesize the mobile compound, or if only shoots of young seedlings are sensitive. It is also unknown how this compound induces arrest of shoot growth. This study investigated both of these questions using genetic, inhibitor, reporter gene, and morphological approaches. RESULTS: Production of the bps1 root-synthesized mobile compound was found to require active root growth. Inhibition of postembryonic root growth, by depleting glutathione either genetically or chemically, allowed seedlings to escape shoot arrest. However, the treatments were not completely effective, as the first leaf pair remained radialized, but elongated. This result indicated that the embryonic root transiently synthesized a small amount of the mobile substance. In addition, providing glutathione later in vegetative development caused shoot growth arrest to be reinstated, revealing that these late-arising roots were still capable of producing the mobile substance, and that the older vegetative leaves were still responsive. To gain insight into how leaf development responds to the mobile signal, leaf development was followed morphologically and using the CYCB1,1::GUS marker for G2/M phase cells. We found that arrest of leaf growth is a fully penetrant phenotype, and a dramatic decrease in G2/M phase cells was coincident with arrest. Analyses of stress phenotypes found that late in development, bps1 cotyledons produced necrotic lesions, however neither hydrogen peroxide nor superoxide were abundant as leaves underwent arrest. CONCLUSIONS: bps1 roots appear to require active growth in order to produce the mobile bps1 signal, but the potential for this compound's synthesis is present both early and late during vegetative development. This prolonged capacity to synthesize and respond to the mobile compound is consistent with a possible role for the mobile compound in linking shoot growth to subterranean conditions. The specific growth-related responses in the shoot indicated that the mobile substance prevents full activation of cell division in leaves, although whether cell division is a direct response remains to be determined.

Conserved RNaseII domain protein functions in cytoplasmic mRNA decay and suppresses Arabidopsis decapping mutant phenotypes.

Both transcription and RNA decay are critical for normal gene regulation. Arabidopsis mutants with defects in VARICOSE (VCS), a decapping complex scaffold protein, lack mRNA decapping and 5'-to-3' decay. These mutants show either severe or suppressed phenotypes, depending on the Arabidopsis accession. Here, we show that the molecular basis for this variation is the SUPPRESSOR OF VARICOSE (SOV), a locus that encodes a conserved, cytoplasmically localized RRP44-like RNaseII-domain protein. In vivo RNA decay assays suggest that active forms of this protein carry out decay on mRNA substrates that overlap with those of the decapping complex. Members of this conserved gene family encode proteins lacking the PIN domain, suggesting that SOV is not a functional component of the RNA exosome.

Plasmodesmata formation: poking holes in walls with ise.

Secondary plasmodesmata are cytoplasmic channels connecting adjacent plant cells that arise after cell division. How membrane-delimited channels penetrate cell walls is unknown, but now two genes, ISE1 and ISE2, are shown to be required for pathways that limit their formation.

BYPASS1: how a tiny mutant tells a big story about root-to-shoot signaling.

Plants coordinate their development using long-distance signaling. The vascular system provides a route for long-distance movement, and specifically the xylem for root-to-shoot signaling. Root-to-shoot signals play roles communicating soil conditions, and these signals are important for agricultural water conservation. Using genetic approaches, the Arabidopsis bypass1 (bps1) mutant, which over-produces a root-derived signal, was identified. Although bps1 mutants have both root and shoot defects, the shoot can develop normally if the roots are removed, and the mutant root is sufficient to induce arrest of the wild-type shoot. BYPASS1 encodes a protein with no functionally characterized domains, and BPS1-like genes are found in plant genomes, but not the genomes of animals. Analyses of hormone pathways indicate that the mobile compound that arises in bps1 roots requires carotenoid biosynthesis, but it is neither abscisic acid nor strigolactone. The current model suggests that BPS1 is required to prevent the synthesis of a novel substance that moves from the root to the shoot, where it modifies shoot growth by interfering with auxin signaling.

Kill the messenger: mRNA decay and plant development.

A pervasive theme in development is that dynamic changes in gene expression drive developmental progression; yet in studies of gene expression, the general RNA decay pathways have historically played second fiddle to transcription. However, recent advances in this field have revealed a surprising degree of mRNA specificity for particular branches of these RNA decay pathways. General cytoplasmic mRNA decay typically initiates with deadenylation, following which the deadenylated mRNA can continue decay from the 3'-end through the action of the exosome, or it can undergo 5'-to-3' decay. Functional characterization of exosome subunits using inducible knock-outs uncovered a surprising complexity of molecular phenotypes and RNA substrates. Decay in the 5'-to-3' direction requires decapping, which is carried out by the decapping complex in Processing bodies (PBs). Recent analyses of decapping mutants have also revealed substrate specificity and roles in translational regulation. In addition, recent studies of specialized pathways such as nonsense-mediated decay and silencing reveal interactions with the general RNA decay pathways.

Widespread translational inhibition by plant miRNAs and siRNAs.

High complementarity between plant microRNAs (miRNAs) and their messenger RNA targets is thought to cause silencing, prevalently by endonucleolytic cleavage. We have isolated Arabidopsis mutants defective in miRNA action. Their analysis provides evidence that plant miRNA-guided silencing has a widespread translational inhibitory component that is genetically separable from endonucleolytic cleavage. We further show that the same is true of silencing mediated by small interfering RNA (siRNA) populations. Translational repression is effected in part by the ARGONAUTE proteins AGO1 and AGO10. It also requires the activity of the microtubule-severing enzyme katanin, implicating cytoskeleton dynamics in miRNA action, as recently suggested from animal studies. Also as in animals, the decapping component VARICOSE (VCS)/Ge-1 is required for translational repression by miRNAs, which suggests that the underlying mechanisms in the two kingdoms are related.

Plant development: PXY and polar cell division in the procambium.

The vascular stem-cell tissue known as procambium generates phloem cells on one side and xylem cells on the other. The Arabidopsis PXY gene encodes a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase that is required for polar divisions of procambial cells.

Components of the Arabidopsis mRNA decapping complex are required for early seedling development.

To understand the mechanisms controlling vein patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana, we analyzed two phenotypically similar mutants, varicose (vcs) and trident (tdt). We had previously identified VCS, and recently, human VCS was shown to function in mRNA decapping. Here, we report that TDT encodes the mRNA-decapping enzyme. VCS and TDT function together in small cytoplasmic foci that appear to be processing bodies. To understand the developmental requirements for mRNA decapping, we characterized the vcs and tdt phenotypes. These mutants were small and chlorotic, with severe defects in shoot apical meristem formation and cotyledon vein patterning. Many capped mRNAs accumulated in tdt and vcs mutants, but surprisingly, some mRNAs were specifically depleted. In addition, loss of decapping arrested the decay of some mRNAs, while others showed either modest or no decay defects, suggesting that mRNAs may show specificity for particular decay pathways (3' to 5' and 5' to 3'). Furthermore, the severe block to postembryonic development in vcs and tdt and the accompanying accumulation of embryonic mRNAs indicate that decapping is important for the embryo-to-seedling developmental transition.