BCKDK regulates the TCA cycle through PDC in the absence of PDK family during embryonic development.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDK1-4) inhibit the TCA cycle by phosphorylating pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). Here, we show that PDK family is dispensable for murine embryonic development and that BCKDK serves as a compensatory mechanism by inactivating PDC. First, we knocked out all four Pdk genes one by one. Surprisingly, Pdk total KO embryos developed and were born in expected ratios but died by postnatal day 4 because of hypoglycemia or ketoacidosis. Moreover, PDC was phosphorylated in these embryos, suggesting that another kinase compensates for PDK family. Bioinformatic analysis implicated branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase (Bckdk), a key regulator of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) catabolism. Indeed, knockout of Bckdk and Pdk family led to the loss of PDC phosphorylation, an increase in PDC activity and pyruvate entry into the TCA cycle, and embryonic lethality. These findings reveal a regulatory crosstalk hardwiring BCAA and glucose catabolic pathways, which feed the TCA cycle.

The mitochondrial carrier Citrin plays a role in regulating cellular energy during carcinogenesis.

Citrin, encoded by SLC25A13 gene, is an inner mitochondrial transporter that is part of the malate-aspartate shuttle, which regulates the NAD+/NADH ratio between the cytosol and mitochondria. Citrullinemia type II (CTLN-II) is an inherited disorder caused by germline mutations in SLC25A13, manifesting clinically in growth failure that can be alleviated by dietary restriction of carbohydrates. The association of citrin with glycolysis and NAD+/NADH ratio led us to hypothesize that it may play a role in carcinogenesis. Indeed, we find that citrin is upregulated in multiple cancer types and is essential for supplementing NAD+ for glycolysis and NADH for oxidative phosphorylation. Consequently, citrin deficiency associates with autophagy, whereas its overexpression in cancer cells increases energy production and cancer invasion. Furthermore, based on the human deleterious mutations in citrin, we found a potential inhibitor of citrin that restricts cancerous phenotypes in cells. Collectively, our findings suggest that targeting citrin may be of benefit for cancer therapy.

Mutant p53-dependent mitochondrial metabolic alterations in a mesenchymal stem cell-based model of progressive malignancy.

It is well accepted that malignant transformation is associated with unique metabolism. Malignant transformation involves a variety of cellular pathways that are associated with initiation and progression of the malignant process that remain to be deciphered still. Here we used a mouse model of mutant p53 that presents a stepwise progressive transformation of adult Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs). While the established parental p53Mut-MSCs induce tumors, the parental p53WT-MSCs that were established in parallel, did not. Furthermore, tumor lines derived from the parental p53Mut-MSCs (p53Mut-MSC-TLs), exhibited yet a more aggressive transformed phenotype, suggesting exacerbation in tumorigenesis. Metabolic tracing of these various cell types, indicated that while malignant transformation is echoed by a direct augmentation in glycolysis, the more aggressive p53Mut-MSC-TLs demonstrate increased mitochondrial oxidation that correlates with morphological changes in mitochondria mass and function. Finally, we show that these changes are p53Mut-dependent. Computational transcriptional analysis identified a mitochondrial gene signature specifically downregulated upon knock/out of p53Mut in MSC-TLs. Our results suggest that stem cells exhibiting different state of malignancy are also associated with a different quantitative and qualitative metabolic profile in a p53Mut-dependent manner. This may provide important insights for cancer prognosis and the use of specific metabolic inhibitors in a personalized designed cancer therapy.

Acid-Induced Downregulation of ASS1 Contributes to the Maintenance of Intracellular pH in Cancer.

Downregulation of the urea cycle enzyme argininosuccinate synthase (ASS1) by either promoter methylation or by HIF1α is associated with increased metastasis and poor prognosis in multiple cancers. We have previously shown that in normoxic conditions, ASS1 downregulation facilitates cancer cell proliferation by increasing aspartate availability for pyrimidine synthesis by the enzyme complex CAD. Here we report that in hypoxia, ASS1 expression in cancerous cells is downregulated further by HIF1α-mediated induction of miR-224-5p, making the cells more invasive and dependent on upstream substrates of ASS1 for survival. ASS1 was downregulated under acidic conditions, and ASS1-depleted cancer cells maintained a higher intracellular pH (pHi), depended less on extracellular glutamine, and displayed higher glutathione levels. Depletion of substrates of urea cycle enzymes in ASS1-deficient cancers decreased cancer cell survival. Thus, ASS1 levels in cancer are differentially regulated in various environmental conditions to metabolically benefit cancer progression. Understanding these alterations may help uncover specific context-dependent cancer vulnerabilities that may be targeted for therapeutic purposes. SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer cells in an acidic or hypoxic environment downregulate the expression of the urea cycle enzyme ASS1, which provides them with a redox and pH advantage, resulting in better survival.Graphical Abstract: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/79/3/518/F1.large.jpg.

MTCH2-mediated mitochondrial fusion drives exit from naïve pluripotency in embryonic stem cells.

The role of mitochondria dynamics and its molecular regulators remains largely unknown during naïve-to-primed pluripotent cell interconversion. Here we report that mitochondrial MTCH2 is a regulator of mitochondrial fusion, essential for the naïve-to-primed interconversion of murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs). During this interconversion, wild-type ESCs elongate their mitochondria and slightly alter their glutamine utilization. In contrast, MTCH2-/- ESCs fail to elongate their mitochondria and to alter their metabolism, maintaining high levels of histone acetylation and expression of naïve pluripotency markers. Importantly, enforced mitochondria elongation by the pro-fusion protein Mitofusin (MFN) 2 or by a dominant negative form of the pro-fission protein dynamin-related protein (DRP) 1 is sufficient to drive the exit from naïve pluripotency of both MTCH2-/- and wild-type ESCs. Taken together, our data indicate that mitochondria elongation, governed by MTCH2, plays a critical role and constitutes an early driving force in the naïve-to-primed pluripotency interconversion of murine ESCs.

Urea Cycle Dysregulation Generates Clinically Relevant Genomic and Biochemical Signatures.

The urea cycle (UC) is the main pathway by which mammals dispose of waste nitrogen. We find that specific alterations in the expression of most UC enzymes occur in many tumors, leading to a general metabolic hallmark termed "UC dysregulation" (UCD). UCD elicits nitrogen diversion toward carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase2, aspartate transcarbamylase, and dihydrooratase (CAD) activation and enhances pyrimidine synthesis, resulting in detectable changes in nitrogen metabolites in both patient tumors and their bio-fluids. The accompanying excess of pyrimidine versus purine nucleotides results in a genomic signature consisting of transversion mutations at the DNA, RNA, and protein levels. This mutational bias is associated with increased numbers of hydrophobic tumor antigens and a better response to immune checkpoint inhibitors independent of mutational load. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that UCD is a common feature of tumors that profoundly affects carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and immunotherapy response.

Induction of Nitric-Oxide Metabolism in Enterocytes Alleviates Colitis and Inflammation-Associated Colon Cancer.

Nitric oxide (NO) plays an established role in numerous physiological and pathological processes, but the specific cellular sources of NO in disease pathogenesis remain unclear, preventing the implementation of NO-related therapy. Argininosuccinate lyase (ASL) is the only enzyme able to produce arginine, the substrate for NO generation by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms. Here, we generated cell-specific conditional ASL knockout mice in combination with genetic and chemical colitis models. We demonstrate that NO derived from enterocytes alleviates colitis by decreasing macrophage infiltration and tissue damage, whereas immune cell-derived NO is associated with macrophage activation, resulting in increased severity of inflammation. We find that induction of endogenous NO production by enterocytes with supplements that upregulate ASL expression and complement its substrates results in improved epithelial integrity and alleviation of colitis and of inflammation-associated colon cancer.

Ligand-Substitution Reactions of the Tellurium Compound AS-101 in Physiological Aqueous and Alcoholic Solutions.

Since its first crystallization, the aqueous structure of the tellurium-containing experimental drug AS-101 has never been studied. We show that, under the aqueous conditions in which it is administered, AS-101 is subjected to an immediate ligand-substitution reaction with water, yielding a stable hydrolyzed oxide anion product that is identified, for the first time, to be TeOCl3-. Studying the structure of AS-101 in propylene glycol (PG), an alcoholic solvent often used for the topical and oral administration of AS-101, revealed the same phenomenon of ligand-substitution reaction between the alcoholic ligands. Upon exposure to water, the PG-substituted product is also hydrolyzed to the same tellurium(IV) oxide form, TeOCl3-.

The Anticancer Activity of Organotelluranes: Potential Role in Integrin Inactivation.

Organic Te(IV) compounds (organotelluranes) differing in their labile ligands exhibited anti-integrin activities in vitro and anti-metastatic properties in vivo. They underwent ligand substitution with l-cysteine, as a thiol model compound. Unlike inorganic Te(IV) compounds, the organotelluranes did not form a stable complex with cysteine, but rather immediately oxidized it. The organotelluranes inhibited integrin functions, such as adhesion, migration, and metalloproteinase secretion mediation in B16F10 murine melanoma cells. In comparison, a reduced derivative with no labile ligand inhibited adhesion of B16F10 cells to a significantly lower extent, thus pointing to the importance of the labile ligands of the Te(IV) atom. One of the organotelluranes inhibited circulating cancer cells in vivo, possibly by integrin inhibition. Our results extend the current knowledge on the reactivity and mechanism of organotelluranes with different labile ligands and highlight their clinical potential.

Diversion of aspartate in ASS1-deficient tumours fosters de novo pyrimidine synthesis.

Cancer cells hijack and remodel existing metabolic pathways for their benefit. Argininosuccinate synthase (ASS1) is a urea cycle enzyme that is essential in the conversion of nitrogen from ammonia and aspartate to urea. A decrease in nitrogen flux through ASS1 in the liver causes the urea cycle disorder citrullinaemia. In contrast to the well-studied consequences of loss of ASS1 activity on ureagenesis, the purpose of its somatic silencing in multiple cancers is largely unknown. Here we show that decreased activity of ASS1 in cancers supports proliferation by facilitating pyrimidine synthesis via CAD (carbamoyl-phosphate synthase 2, aspartate transcarbamylase, and dihydroorotase complex) activation. Our studies were initiated by delineating the consequences of loss of ASS1 activity in humans with two types of citrullinaemia. We find that in citrullinaemia type I (CTLN I), which is caused by deficiency of ASS1, there is increased pyrimidine synthesis and proliferation compared with citrullinaemia type II (CTLN II), in which there is decreased substrate availability for ASS1 caused by deficiency of the aspartate transporter citrin. Building on these results, we demonstrate that ASS1 deficiency in cancer increases cytosolic aspartate levels, which increases CAD activation by upregulating its substrate availability and by increasing its phosphorylation by S6K1 through the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Decreasing CAD activity by blocking citrin, the mTOR signalling, or pyrimidine synthesis decreases proliferation and thus may serve as a therapeutic strategy in multiple cancers where ASS1 is downregulated. Our results demonstrate that ASS1 downregulation is a novel mechanism supporting cancerous proliferation, and they provide a metabolic link between the urea cycle enzymes and pyrimidine synthesis.

Redox modulation of adjacent thiols in VLA-4 by AS101 converts myeloid leukemia cells from a drug-resistant to drug-sensitive state.

Interaction between the integrin VLA-4 on acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) cells with stromal fibronectin is a decisive factor in chemotherapeutic resistance. In this study, we provide a rationale for a drug repositioning strategy to blunt integrin activation in AML cells and restore their sensitivity to chemotherapy. Specifically, we demonstrate that the nontoxic tellurium compound AS101, currently being evaluated in clinical trials, can abrogate the acquired resistance of AML. Mechanistic investigations revealed that AS101 caused redox inactivation of adjacent thiols in the exofacial domain of VLA-4 after its ligation to stromal fibronectin. This effect triggered cytoskeletal conformational changes that decreased PI3K/Akt/Bcl2 signaling, an obligatory step in chemosensitization by AS101. In a mouse xenograft of AML derived from patient leukemic cells with high VLA-4 expression and activity, we demonstrated that AS101 abrogated drug resistance and prolonged survival in mice receiving chemotherapy. Decreased integrin activity was confirmed on AML cells in vivo. The chemosensitizing activity of AS101 persisted in hosts with defective adaptive and innate immunity, consistent with evidence that integrin deactivation was not mediated by heightening immune attack. Our findings provide a mechanistic rationale to reposition the experimental clinical agent, AS101, to degrade VLA-4-mediated chemoresistance and improve clinical responses in patients with AML.

8-(p-CF3-cinnamyl)-modified purine nucleosides as promising fluorescent probes.

Natural nucleotides are not useful as fluorescent probes because of their low quantum yields. Therefore, a common methodology for the detection of RNA and DNA is the application of extrinsic fluorescent dyes coupled to bases in oligonucleotides. To overcome the many limitations from which fluorescent nucleotide-dye conjugates suffer, we have developed novel purine nucleosides with intrinsic fluorescence to be incorporated into oligonucleotide probes. For this purpose we synthesized adenosine and guanosine fluorescent analogues 7-25, conjugated at the C8 position with aryl/heteroaryl moieties either directly, or via alkenyl/alkynyl linkers. Directly conjugated analogues 7-14, exhibited high quantum yields, φ >0.1, and short λ(em) (<385 nm). Alkynyl conjugated analogues 22-25, exhibited low quantum yields, φ <0.075, and λ(em)<385 nm. The alkenyl conjugated analogues 15-21, exhibited λ(em) 408-459 nm. While analogues 15,16, and 20 bearing an EDG on the aryl moiety, exhibited φ <0.02, analogues 17, and 21 with EWG on the aryl moiety, exhibited extremely high quantum yields, φ ≈ 0.8, suggesting better intramolecular charge transfer. We determined the conformation of selected adenosine analogues. Directly conjugated analogue 8 and alkynyl conjugated analogue 22, adapted the syn conformation, whereas alkenyl conjugated analogue 15 adapted the anti conformation. Based on the long emission wavelengths, high quantum yields, anti conformation and base-paring compatibility, we suggest analogues 17 and 21 for further development as fluorescent probes for the sensitive detection of genetic material.