Essential oil and fenchone extracted from Tetradenia riparia (Hochstetter.) Codd (Lamiaceae) induce oxidative stress in Culex quinquefasciatus larvae (Diptera: Culicidae) without causing lethal effects on non-target animals.

We investigated the larvicidal activity of the essential oil (EO) from Tetradenia riparia and its majority compound fenchone for controlling Culex quinquefasciatus larvae, focusing on reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities, and total thiol content as oxidative stress indicators. Moreover, the lethal effect of EO and fenchone was evaluated against Anisops bouvieri, Diplonychus indicus, Danio rerio, and Paracheirodon axelrodi. The EO and fenchone (5 to 25 µg/mL) showed larvicidal activity (LC50 from 16.05 to 18.94 µg/mL), followed by an overproduction of RONS, and changes in the activity of CAT, GST, AChE, and total thiol content. The Kaplan-Meier followed by Log-rank (Mantel-Cox) analyses showed a 100% survival rate for A. bouvieri, D. indicus, D. rerio, and P. axelrodi when exposed to EO and fenchone (262.6 and 302.60 µg/mL), while α-cypermethrin (0.25 µg/mL) was extremely toxic to these non-target animals, causing 100% of death. These findings emphasize that the EO from T. riparia and fenchone serve as suitable larvicides for controlling C. quinquefasciatus larvae, without imposing lethal effects on the non-target animals investigated.

Toxicity of the essential oil from Tetradenia riparia (Hochstetter.) Codd (Lamiaceae) and its principal constituent against malaria and dengue vectors and non-target animals.

Malaria and dengue are diseases transmitted by mosquitoes of the genera Anopheles and Aedes resistant to commercial insecticides, which are toxic to non-target animals. Alternatively, eco-friendly strategies have focused on searching for essential oil (EO) from plants to control these mosquitoes. In this aspect, this study was carried out to investigate the toxicity of the EO from Tetradenia riparia and its main constituent against Anopheles and Aedes larvae and non-target animals Toxorhynchites haemorrhoidalis and Gambusia affinis. The mechanism of the larvicidal action of the EO and its main compound was investigated by the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition. The EO from T. riparia was extracted by hydrodistillation with yield of 1.4 ± 0.17%. The analysis of the EO by GC-MS and GC-FID revealed fenchone (38.62%) as the main compound. The EO (100 ppm) showed larvicidal activity against Anopheles and Aedes larvae (91 to 100% of mortality) (LC50 from 29.31 to 40.76 ppm). On the other hand, fenchone (10 ppm) showed more activity (89 to 100% of mortality) (LC50 from 5.93 to 7.00 ppm) than the EO. The EO and fenchone caused the inhibition of AChE (IC50 from 1.93 to 2.65 ppm), suggesting the inhibition of this enzyme as a possible mechanism of larvicidal action. Regarding toxicity, the EO (1000 ppm) and fenchone (100 ppm) showed low toxicity against T. haemorrhoidalis and G. affinis (9 to 74% of mortality) (LC50 from 170.50 to 924.89 ppm) (SI/PSF from 17.99 to 31.91) than the α-cypermethrin (0.52 ppm) which was extremally toxic against these non-target animals (100% of mortality, LC50 from 0.22 to 0.29 ppm). This significant larvicidal activity of the T. riparia EO and its main constituent, along with the low toxicity towards non-target organisms indicate these samples as a possible eco-friendly alternative for the control of malaria and dengue vectors.

Essential oil of Piper purusanum C.DC (Piperaceae) and its main sesquiterpenes: biodefensives against malaria and dengue vectors, without lethal effect on non-target aquatic fauna.

The mosquito vectors of the genera Aedes and Anopheles present resistance to several commercial insecticides, which are also toxic to non-predator targets. On the other hand, essential oils are a promising source of insecticides. Thus, in this work, the essential oil from the leaves of Piper purusanum was characterized by gas chromatography-based approaches and evaluated as biodefensive against malaria and dengue vectors. The main compounds of P. purusanum essential oil were ß-caryophyllene (57.05%), α-humulene (14.50%), and germacrene D (8.20%). The essential oil inhibited egg hatching (7.6 ± 1.5 to 95.6 ± 4.5%), caused larval death (LC50 from 49.84 to 51.60 ppm), and inhibited the action of acetylcholinesterase (IC50 of 2.29 µg/mL), which can be related to the mechanisms of action. On the other hand, the biological activities of ß-caryophyllene, α-humulene, and germacrene D were higher than that of essential oil. In addition, these sesquiterpenes and essential oil did not show a lethal effect on Toxorhynchites splendens, Anisops bouvieri, Gambusia affinis, and Diplonychus indicus (LC50 from 2098.80 to 7707.13 ppm), although D. indicus is more sensitive (SI/PSF from 48.56 to 252.02 ppm) to essential oil, representing a natural alternative against these relevant vectors.

An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors.

In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Anopheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.

An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors

In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Ano- pheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.

Experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of key Anopheles species from the Brazilian Amazon.

BACKGROUND: Anopheles darlingi is the major malaria vector in countries located in the Amazon region. Anopheles aquasalis and Anopheles albitarsis s.l. are also proven vectors in this region. Anopheles nuneztovari s.l. and Anopheles triannulatus s.l. were found infected with Plasmodium vivax; however, their status as vectors is not yet well defined. Knowledge of susceptibility of Amazon anopheline populations to Plasmodium infection is necessary to better understand their vector capacity. Laboratory colonization of An. darlingi, the main Amazon vector, has proven to be difficult and presently An. aquasalis is the only available autonomous colony. METHODS: Larvae of An. darlingi, An. albitarsis s.l., An. nuneztovari s.l. and An. triannulatus s.l. were collected in the field and reared until adult stage. Adults of An. aquasalis were obtained from a well-established colony. Mosquitoes were blood-fed using a membrane-feeding device containing infected blood from malarial patients.The infection of the distinct Anopheles species was evaluated by the impact variance of the following parameters: (a) parasitaemia density; (b) blood serum inactivation of the infective bloodmeal; (c) influence of gametocyte number on infection rates and number of oocysts. The goal of this work was to compare the susceptibility to P. vivax of four field-collected Anopheles species with colonized An. aquasalis. RESULTS: All Anopheles species tested were susceptible to P. vivax infection, nevertheless the proportion of infected mosquitoes and the infection intensity measured by oocyst number varied significantly among species. Inactivation of the blood serum prior to mosquito feeding increased infection rates in An. darlingi and An. triannulatus s.l., but was diminished in An. albitarsis s.l. and An. aquasalis. There was a positive correlation between gametocyte density and the infection rate in all tests (Z = -8.37; p < 0.001) but varied among the mosquito species. Anopheles albitarsis s.l., An. aquasalis and An. nuneztovari s.l. had higher infection rates than An. darlingi. CONCLUSION: All field-collected Anopheles species, as well as colonized An. aquasalis are susceptible to experimental P. vivax infections by membrane feeding assays. Anopheles darlingi, An. albitarsis s.l. and An. aquasalis are very susceptible to P. vivax infection. However, colonized An. aquasalis mosquitoes showed the higher infection intensity represented by infection rate and oocyst numbers. This study is the first to characterize experimental development of Plasmodium infections in Amazon Anopheles vectors and also to endorse that P. vivax infection of colonized An. aquasalis is a feasible laboratory model.