Acid Peptic Disease.

The management of peptic ulcer disease has radically changed over the last 40 years from primarily surgical treatment to medical therapy nearly eliminating the need for elective surgery in these patients. Although there has been a decline in patients requiring acute surgical intervention for complications of peptic ulcer disease (perforation, bleeding, and obstruction), these patients still make up a significant proportion of hospital admissions every year. The modern acute care surgeon must have significant knowledge of the multiple treatment modalities used to appropriately care for these patients.

Who Will Be Able to Perform Open Biliary Surgery in 2025?

BACKGROUND: Although laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is the gold standard, some patients still require an open cholecystectomy (OC). This study evaluates the mean number of OCs performed by each graduating general surgery resident during each of 3 decades. STUDY DESIGN: Data were obtained from all patients undergoing a cholecystectomy during 3 decades: prelaparoscopic era (1981 to 1990), first decade of LC (1991 to 2001), and recent decade of LC (2004 to 2013). Data were prospectively collected and retrospectively reviewed and analyzed by chi-square or Fisher's exact test. RESULTS: Compared with the prelaparoscopic decade, the number of patients undergoing an OC decreased considerably, by 67%, during the first decade of LC, and by 92% during the most recent decade at the 2 core teaching hospitals. Mean number of OCs performed per graduating chief general surgery resident decreased significantly for both laparoscopic decades compared with the prelaparoscopic decade (70.4, 22.4, and 3.6, respectively). In the last decade at the core institutions, 683 (8.8%) patients also underwent an intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC) and 36 (0.5%) underwent common bile duct exploration (CBDE). When biliary cases done at affiliated institutions during the last decade were included, the mean number of OCs (from 3.6 to 10.2), IOCs (from 683 to 2,098), and CBDEs (from 36 to 116) all increased (p < 0.001) per graduating chief general surgery resident. CONCLUSIONS: There has been a considerable decline in the number of OCs, IOCs, and CBDEs available to our trainees during the past 30 years. New training paradigms should include renewed focus on performing an IOC and/or CBDE as clinically indicated during LC; high-quality simulation programs for OC, IOC, and CBDE; and the availability of an advanced video library depicting complicated open biliary procedures.

Has intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy become obsolete in the era of preoperative endoscopic retrograde and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography?

BACKGROUND: Preoperative ERCP, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP), and intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) are standard procedures in evaluating patients with suspected choledocholithiasis. This study evaluates the changing practice patterns over time of these 3 procedures in a large cohort of patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) at a single tertiary care center. STUDY DESIGN: Data from all patients undergoing an LC with or without preoperative ERCP, MRCP, or an IOC from January 1, 2004 to December 31, 2013 were retrospectively reviewed from billing data obtained by CPT code and analyzed by chi-square testing. RESULTS: During 10 years, 7,427 patients underwent successful LC. The number of patients undergoing successful IOC (11.9% to 7.6%) or preoperative ERCP (7.2% to 1.5%) decreased significantly during that time interval (p < 0.01). In the last 6 years, 4,506 patients underwent successful LC. The number of patients from this group undergoing a preoperative MRCP (0.9% to 8.6%) or MRCP and ERCP (0.4% to 3.6%) increased significantly (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Despite a shift from IOC and preoperative ERCP to preoperative MRCP alone or with ERCP, a significant percentage (7.6%) of patients still underwent IOC in 2013. Use of IOC during LC has decreased but is not considered obsolete, rather, it remains a valuable tool for the evaluation of bile duct anatomy, bile duct injury, or suspected choledocholithiasis. Intraoperative cholangiography during uncomplicated LC should be emphasized in teaching programs to insure general surgery resident competency with the procedure.

Geographic maldistribution of general surgery PGYI residents: another US surgical desert.

BACKGROUND: Practicing general surgeons are unevenly distributed across the country. This study evaluates the geographic distribution of categorical, general surgery (GS) PGYI positions per capita. METHODS: Data were obtained from the 2012 National Resident Matching Program match and the 2010 US Census. RESULTS: The mean for GS PGYI positions per 10(6) population was 3.85 ± .61; 27 states fell below this value. The 7 American College of Surgeons (ACS) regions ranged from a low of 1.4 ± .50 (Intermountain) to a high of 9.89 ± 4.41 (Northeast). The mean (2.18 ± .34) for the 19 state membership of the Southwestern Surgical Congress was below the mean for the country. CONCLUSIONS: There is a maldistribution of GS PGYI positions compared with state and regional populations, particularly in rural areas. This mirrors the maldistribution of practicing general surgeons across the United States. Additional GS residences and resident positions are urgently needed to correct this "Surgical Desert" of graduate surgical education.

The general surgery workforce shortage is worse when assessed at county level.

BACKGROUND: Multiple studies have documented a significant decrease in the general surgery workforce in the United States, both rural and urban, for the past 3 decades. This 11-year study evaluates the Texas general surgery workforce at both the state and local level in 2002 and 2012. METHODS: Data were obtained from the Texas Medical Board, the United States Census Bureau/Texas State Library and Archives Commission, and the Texas Department of State Health Services for 2002 and 2012. A benchmark target of 7 general surgeons per 100,000 population was used. RESULTS: During the study period, the Texas population increased 21%, and actively practicing physicians increased 44%. All surgical specialists increased by 26%. General surgeons increased 4%; however, the number of general surgeons per 100,000 population decreased 14% (from 6.7 to 5.8/10(5)). Using the total Texas population for 2012, an additional 329 general surgeons are needed by benchmark standards. However, when analyzed by individual county population, 449 additional general surgeons are needed in the individual counties. These effects were greater in the nonmetropolitan areas of Texas where per capita general surgeons decreased by 21%. CONCLUSIONS: The absolute increase in Texas general surgeons over the past decade has not kept pace with an increase in the Texas population. The general surgery workforce deficit based on the Texas state population underestimates the local workforce shortage, particularly in the nonmetropolitan areas of Texas.

Tort reform is associated with significant increases in Texas physicians relative to the Texas population.

INTRODUCTION: Texas implemented comprehensive tort reform in 2003. We hypothesized that tort reform was followed by a significant increase of physicians practicing in Texas. METHODS: To test this hypothesis, we compared the rate of physician growth prior to and following tort reform, and the number of licensed physicians and physicians per 100,000. RESULTS: Comparing before and after tort reform, the rate of increase in Texas physicians per 100,000 population increased significantly (p < 0.01). From 2002 to 2012, the Texas population increased 21 %. The number of actively practicing Texas physicians increased by 15,611 a 44 % increase (46 % metro areas vs. 9 % non-metro areas), an increase of 30 physicians per 100,000 population (p < 0.01). Non-metropolitan Texas had a net increase of 215 physicians; however, there was no change in the number of physicians per 100,000. Examining the data by trauma service areas (TSAs), 20 of 22 TSAs had an increase in both number of physicians and physicians per capita, five greater than 50 %. CONCLUSIONS: The post-tort reform period in Texas was associated with a significantly increased growth rate of physicians relative to the Texas population. Tort reform, as implemented in Texas, provides a needed framework for improving access to health care.

Tort reform is associated with more medical board complaints and disciplinary actions.

BACKGROUND: Previous reports have confirmed that comprehensive tort reform in Texas (enacted in 2003) was associated with fewer lawsuits and less litigation-associated cost. We hypothesized that complaints to the Texas Medical Board (TMB) increased after tort reform. STUDY DESIGN: To test this hypothesis, we compared complaints, investigations, disciplinary actions, and penalties against physicians before and after comprehensive state tort reform measures were adopted. Data were obtained from the TMB for a 15-year period (1996 to 2010). RESULTS: When comparing the period before tort reform (1996 to 2002) with the period after tort reform (2004 to 2010), TMB complaints increased 13%; investigations opened increased 33%, disciplinary actions increased 96%, license revocations or surrenders increased 47%, and financial penalties increased 367%. All of these increases were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: After tort reform in Texas, the total number of complaints, investigations, disciplinary decisions, license revocations or surrenders, and financial penalties from the TMB significantly increased. In Texas, tort reform was accompanied by legislatively directed, enhanced oversight and activity of the authority (TMB) charged with regulation of the medical profession.

Malpractice risk and cost are significantly reduced after tort reform.

BACKGROUND: Rising medical malpractice premiums have reached a crisis point in many areas of the United States. In 2003 the Texas legislature passed a comprehensive package of tort reform laws that included a cap at $250,000 on noneconomic damages in most medical malpractice cases. We hypothesized that tort reform laws significantly reduce the risk of malpractice lawsuit in an academic medical center. We compared malpractice prevalence, incidence, and liability costs before and after comprehensive state tort reform measures were implemented. STUDY DESIGN: Two prospectively maintained institutional databases were used to calculate and characterize malpractice risk: a surgical operation database and a risk management and malpractice database. Risk groups were divided into pretort reform (1992 to 2004) and post-tort reform groups (2004 to the present). Operative procedures were included for elective, urgent, and emergency general surgery procedures. RESULTS: During the study period, 98,513 general surgical procedures were performed. A total of 28 lawsuits (25 pre-reform, 3 postreform) were filed, naming general surgery faculty or residents. The prevalence of lawsuits filed/100,000 procedures performed is as follows: before reform, 40 lawsuits/100,000 procedures, and after reform, 8 lawsuits/100,000 procedures (p < 0.01, relative risk 0.21 [95% CI 0.063 to 0.62]). Virtually all of the liability and defense cost was in the pretort reform period: $595,000/year versus $515/year in the postreform group (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of comprehensive tort reform in Texas was associated with a significant decrease in the prevalence and cost of surgical malpractice lawsuits at one academic medical center.

The Mirizzi syndrome: multidisciplinary management promotes optimal outcomes.

The Mirizzi syndrome (MS) is a rare cause of obstructive jaundice produced by the impaction of a gallstone either in the cystic duct or in the gallbladder, resulting in stenosis of the extrahepatic bile duct and, in severe cases, direct cholecystocholedochal fistula formation. Sixteen patients were treated for MS in our center over the 12-year period 1993--2005 for a prevalence of 0.35% of all cholecystectomies performed. One patient was diagnosed only at the time of cholecystectomy. The other 15 patients presented with laboratory and imaging findings consistent with choledocholithiasis and underwent preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, which established the diagnosis in all but one patient. All patients underwent cholecystectomy. An initial laparoscopic approach was attempted in 14 patients, of whom 11 were converted to open procedures. MS was recognized operatively in 15 patients with definitive stone extraction and relief of obstruction in 13 patients. T-tubes were placed in 10 patients and 1 patient required a choledochoduodenostomy. Two patients required postoperative laser lithotripsy via a T-tube tract to clear their stones; and in another patient, MS was detected and treated via postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). MS remains a serious diagnostic and therapeutic challenge for endoscopists and biliary surgeons.

Gallbladder perforation: risk factors and outcome.

BACKGROUND: Gallbladder perforation is difficult to diagnose and is associated with significant morbidity. This study investigates factors affecting outcome in patients with gallbladder perforation over two decades. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From 1982 to 2002 data from patients undergoing cholecystectomy at one institution were prospectively collected. Patients treated for gallbladder perforation and gangrenous cholecystitis were identified and outcomes were compared. The chi(2) test, Student's t-test, and Mann-Whitney rank sum test were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Two hundred eight of 11,360 patients who underwent cholecystectomy were diagnosed with gangrenous cholecystitis and 30 were diagnosed with gallbladder perforation. The perforation was contained in 9 and free in 21 patients. The diagnosis of gallbladder perforation was made preoperatively in 3% of patients. Men outnumbered women and Hispanics outnumbered Caucasians. Compared to patients with gangrenous cholecystitis, patients with gallbladder perforation presented at an older age (53 versus 60 years; P < 0.05), had more cardiovascular comorbidity (29% versus 50%; P < 0.05) and postoperative complications (19% versus 37%; P < 0.05), and required more ICU admissions (9% versus 33%; P < 0.001) and longer hospital stays (8 versus 13 days; P < 0.001). Early cholecystectomy within 24 h improved outcome (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Gallbladder perforation is a rare complication of cholelithiasis that occurs more often in men, Hispanics, and older patients. It is rarely diagnosed preoperatively. Late operative intervention is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, number of ICU admissions, and long postoperative hospital stays. An early cholecystectomy strategy may lead to improved outcomes but may be difficult to implement and may not be cost-effective.

Does the correlation of acute cholecystitis on ultrasound and at surgery reflect a mirror image?

BACKGROUND: It remains unclear if sonography accurately describes the severity of gallstone disease. METHODS: Patients were prospectively enrolled if urgent cholecystectomy was indicated. Two radiologists, blinded to operative findings, evaluated the patients' ultrasound imagings. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed within 48 hours. The operative findings regarding gallbladder wall thickness and inflammation were compared to ultrasound results and histology. RESULTS: Fifty-five patients completed the study. Ultrasound studies exhibited a sensitivity of 60% for the diagnosis of acute cholecystitis compared to the findings at operation and 52% relative to the histologic findings. Specificity for acute cholecystitis diagnosed on ultrasound examination was 77% compared to findings at operation and 71% relative to histologic findings. The correlation coefficient of the wall thickness at ultrasound and surgery was 0.18: 0.24 for ultrasound and histology and 0.5 for surgery and histology. CONCLUSIONS: Ultrasound's ability to predict acute cholecystitis in patients with clinical symptoms appears limited.

Intraoperative parathyroid hormone assay: an accurate predictor of symptomatic hypocalcemia following thyroidectomy.

HYPOTHESIS: Intraoperative parathyroid hormone (IOPTH) assay is useful for predicting symptomatic hypocalcemia following total thyroidectomy. DESIGN: A prospective study of 30 patients undergoing total thyroidectomy with IOPTH levels obtained following skin closure and ionized calcium (Ca2+) levels obtained 6 hours postoperatively and on postoperative day 1. All patients were evaluated for symptoms of hypocalcemia. SETTING: University teaching hospital. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Patients who developed symptomatic hypocalcemia were compared with asymptomatic patients in regard to age, diagnosis, thyroid weight, thyrotropin level, Ca2+ level, parathyroid status, and IOPTH level. RESULTS: The onset of symptomatic hypocalcemia ranged from 8 to 48 hours postoperatively (n = 10). One patient required readmission. Of 10 patients with symptoms, 5 developed tetany. There were no significant differences in age, diagnosis, thyroid weight, thyrotropin level, or the number of parathyroid glands preserved in patients with or without symptomatic hypocalcemia. All patients with an IOPTH level of less than 10 pg/mL (1.1 pmol/L) had symptoms (n = 8). The mean +/- SD IOPTH level (7.6 +/- 12.0 pg/mL [0.8 +/- 1.3 pmol/L]) in patients who developed symptomatic hypocalcemia was significantly lower than the mean IOPTH level (55.7 +/- 31.8 pg/mL [5.9 +/- 3.3 pmol/L]) in patients without symptoms (P =.001). The 6-hour and postoperative day 1 Ca2+ levels were significantly lower in patients with symptomatic hypocalcemia (P =.19 and P =.13, respectively). An IOPTH level of less than 10 pg/mL is 80% sensitive and 100% specific for the development of symptomatic hypocalcemia. CONCLUSION: The incorporation of the IOPTH assay in the management of thyroid disease is recommended to prevent and prospectively treat symptomatic hypocalcemia, thereby reducing readmissions following thyroidectomy.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy for elderly patients: gold standard for golden years?

HYPOTHESIS: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has known physiological benefits and positive socioeconomic effects over the open procedure. Although recent studies have questioned the technique's efficacy in elderly patients (>65 years), we hypothesize that LC is safe and efficacious in that patient group. METHODS: Five thousand eight hundred eighty-four consecutive patients (mean age, 40 years; 26% male) underwent an attempted LC (conversion rate, 5.2%) from 1991 to 2001 at a teaching institution. Of these, 395 patients (6.7%) were older than 65 years. Analysis included patient age, sex, American Society of Anesthesiologists classification, conversion rate, morbidity, mortality, and assessment of results over time. RESULTS: Elderly patients were predominantly male (64%). Septuagenarians had a 40% incidence of complicated gallstone disease, such as acute cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, or biliary pancreatitis, and octogenarians had a 55% incidence. Overall mortality was 1.4%. The conversion rate was 17% for the first 5 years of the study period and 7% for the second half. The conversion rate was 22% for patients with complicated disease and 2.5% for patients with chronic cholecystitis. Average hospital stay decreased from 10.2 days to 4.6 days during the first and second half of the study period, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results of LC in patients aged 65 to 69 years are comparable with those previously reported in younger patients. Patients older than 70 years had a 2-fold increase in complicated biliary tract disease and conversion rates, but a low mortality rate (2%) compared with results of other authors (12%), despite an increase in American Society of Anesthesiologists classification. Increased technical experience with LC favorably affected outcomes over time. Early diagnosis and treatment prior to onset of complications are necessary for further improvement in the outcomes of elderly patients undergoing LC.

Reasons for conversion from laparoscopic to open cholecystectomy: a 10-year review.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is now considered the "gold standard" operation for patients with gallstone disease. A number of patients require conversion to an open cholecystectomy for the safe completion of the procedure. This study investigates how the etiology and incidence of conversion from laparoscopic to open cholecystectomy has changed over time. All 5884 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy between March 1991 and June 2001 were prospectively collected in a database. A total of 310 patients (5.2%) had had their cholecystectomies converted to an open procedure. The mortality rate for these patients was 0.7%. Causes for conversion were inability to correctly identify anatomy (50%), "other" indications (16%), bleeding (14%), suspected choledocholithiasis (11%), and suspected bile duct injury (8%). After an initial learning curve in thin patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis, inclusion of patients with acute cholecystitis, morbid obesity, or a prior celiotomy resulted in a peak conversion rate of 11% by 1994. From 1994 to the first half of 2001, the conversion rate has declined significantly for all patients (10% to 1%), as well as for patients with acute cholecystitis (26% to 1%). Although unclear anatomy secondary to inflammation remains the most common reason for conversion, the impact of acute cholecystitis on the operative outcome has decreased with time.