Gymnema inodorum (Lour.) Decne. Extract Alleviates Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Mediators Produced by RAW264.7 Macrophages.

Gymnema inodorum (Lour.) Decne. (G. inodorum) is widely used in Northern Thai cuisine as local vegetables and commercial herb tea products. In the present study, G. inodorum extract (GIE) was evaluated for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in LPS plus IFN-γ-induced RAW264.7 cells. Major compounds in GIE were evaluated using GC-MS and found 16 volatile compounds presenting in the extract. GIE exhibited antioxidant activity by scavenging the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and increasing superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) mRNA expression in LPS plus IFN-γ-induced RAW264.7 cells. GIE showed anti-inflammatory activity through suppressing nitric oxide (NO), proinflammatory cytokine production interleukin 6 (IL-6) and also downregulation of the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and IL-6 mRNA levels in LPS plus IFN-γ-induced RAW264.7 cells. Mechanism studies showed that GIE suppressed the NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation and slightly decreased the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 (p-NF-κB p65) protein. Our studies applied the synchrotron radiation-based FTIR microspectroscopy (SR-FTIR), supported by multivariate analysis, to identify the FTIR spectral changes based on macromolecule alterations occurring in RAW264.7 cells. SR-FTIR results demonstrated that the presence of LPS plus IFN-γ in RAW264.7 cells associated with the increase of amide I/amide II ratio (contributing to the alteration of secondary protein structure) and lipid content, whereas glycogen and other carbohydrate content were decreased. These findings lead us to believe that GIE may prevent oxidative damage by scavenging intracellular ROS production and activating the antioxidant gene, SOD2, expression. Therefore, it is possible that the antioxidant properties of GIE could modulate the inflammation process by regulating the ROS levels, which lead to the suppression of proinflammatory cytokines and genes. Therefore, GIE could be developed into a novel antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent to treat and prevent diseases related to oxidative stress and inflammation.

Intracellular ROS Scavenging and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Oroxylum indicum Kurz (L.) Extract in LPS plus IFN-γ-Activated RAW264.7 Macrophages.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz has been used as plant-based food and herbal medicine in many Asian countries. The aim of the present study was to examine the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of O. indicum extract (O. indicum) in RAW264.7 cells activated by LPS plus IFN-γ. The phytochemical compounds in O. indicum were identified by GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. Five flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, baicalein, oroxylin A, and quercetin) and 27 volatile compounds were found in O. indicum. O. indicum presented antioxidant activities, including reducing ability by FRAP assay and free radical scavenging activity by DPPH assay. Moreover, O. indicum also suppressed LPS plus IFN-γ-activated reactive oxygen species generation in RAW264.7 macrophages. It possessed the potent anti-inflammatory action through suppressing nitric oxide (NO) and IL-6 secretion, possibly due to its ability to scavenge intracellular ROS. The synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared (SR-FTIR) spectroscopy results showed the alteration of signal intensity and integrated areas relating to lipid and protein of the activated RAW264.7 macrophages compared to unactivated cells. This is the first report of an application of the SR-FTIR technique to evaluate biomolecular changes in activated RAW264.7 cells. Our results indicate that O. indicum may be used as a potential source of nutraceutical for the development of health food supplement or a novel anti-inflammatory herbal medicine.

Pseuderanthemum palatiferum leaf extract inhibits the proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-6 expression in LPS-activated macrophages.

The anti-inflammatory potential and underlying mechanisms of an ethanol extract of Pseuderanthemum palatiferum (EEP) leaves was investigated using LPS-activated macrophages. Our results show EEP produced a concentration-dependent suppression of TNF-α and IL-6 secretion by LPS-activated mouse peritoneal macrophages. EEP also suppressed LPS-induced TNF-α and IL-6 protein and mRNA levels in mouse-derived myeloid cell line RAW264.7. To further elucidate the molecular mechanisms responsible for impaired TNF-α and IL-6 regulation by EEP, the activation of transcription factors, NF-κB, C/EBP, and AP-1, was monitored using electrophoretic mobility shift assays. EEP suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB DNA binding activity within both the TNF-α and IL-6 promoters in RAW264.7 cells with impairment being more pronounced in the IL-6 promoter. In addition, EEP exhibited a concentration-dependent suppression of C/EBP and AP-1 DNA binding activity within the IL-6 promoter. Concordantly, IL-6 luciferase promoter reporter activity was also suppressed by EEP in transiently transfected RAW264.7 cells, upon LPS activation. EEP analysis by GC-MS and HPLC DAD-MSD revealed the presence of ß-sitosterol and various polyphenols, respectively, which are known to possess anti-inflammatory activity. Collectively, these results suggest that the anti-inflammatory effects of EEP are mediated, at least in part, by modulating TNF-α and IL-6 expression through impairment of NF-κB, C/EBP, and AP-1 activity.

Intracellular ROS Scavenging Activity and Downregulation of Inflammatory Mediators in RAW264.7 Macrophage by Fresh Leaf Extracts of Pseuderanthemum palatiferum.

Beneficial antioxidant phytochemicals are found in many medicinal plants. Pseuderanthemum palatiferum (PP), a well-known Vietnamese traditional medicinal plant in Thailand, has long been used in folk medicine for curing inflammatory diseases, often with limited support of scientific research. Therefore, this study aimed to determine antioxidant and modulation of inflammatory mediators of ethanol and water extracts of PP (EEP and WEP, resp.). WEP had significantly higher phenolic and flavonoid levels and DPPH radical scavenging activity than EEP. However, EEP exhibited greater reducing power than WEP. A greater decrease of tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced oxidative stress in RAW264.7 macrophage cells was also observed with EEP. Modulation of inflammatory mediators of EEP and WEP was evaluated on LPS plus IFN- γ -stimulated RAW264.7 cells. EEP more potently suppressed LPS plus IFN- γ -induced nitric oxide (NO) production than WEP. Both EEP and WEP also suppressed the expression of iNOS and COX-2 protein levels. Collectively, these results suggest that PP possesses strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.