An efficient, reliable and valid assessment for affective states during online learning.

The current study aims to develop an efficient, reliable and valid assessment, the affective states for online learning scale (ASOLS), for measuring learners' affective states during online learning using a sample of 173 young learners. The assessment consists of 15 items which assess five affective states, including concentration, motivation, perseverance, engagement, and self-initiative. To improve efficiency, five items (one for each affective state) are randomly selected and presented every 30 min during online learning. In addition, 14 among the participants were further invited to perform on-site online learning, and their affective states were validated by observations conducted by two psychologists. The ASOLS was found to be reliable and valid, with high internal consistency reliabilities and good construct, convergent and criterion validity. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the hypothesized five-factor structure demonstrated a satisfactory fit to the data. Moreover, engagement was found to be positively associated with learning performance. Our findings suggest that the ASOLS provides a useful tool for teachers to identify students in upper primary and junior secondary schools with deficits in affective states and offer appropriate remedy or support. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at enhancing students' affective states during online learning.

How does psychological capital lead to better well-being for students? The roles of family support and problem-focused coping.

Recent studies have shifted the attention on the beneficial role of psychological capital from workplace to academic contexts. Moreover, the mediating role of psychological capital in the effect of social support on student outcomes remains unknown. This topic has become more imperative under the pandemic. The current study aimed to investigate the impact of psychological capital on students' well-being with family support as an antecedent and problem-focused coping as a mediator. Two hundred and eighty-one students completed the questionnaire at two time points. Results of the cross-lagged mediation analysis showed that family support positively predicted psychological capital, psychological capital positively predicted problem-focused coping, and problem-focused coping predicted well-being. Moreover, the chain mediation path between family support and well-being via psychological capital and problem-focused coping was significant. The current findings identify the antecedent and underlying mechanism behind the relationship between psychological capital and well-being, providing insights into psychological capital interventions for students.

Family-to-Work Interface and Workplace Injuries: The Mediating Roles of Burnout, Work Engagement, and Safety Violations.

Past research has primarily investigated the role of the negative side (family-to-work conflict; FWC) of the family-to-work interface in workplace safety outcomes and neglected the positive side (family-to-work enrichment; FWE). Moreover, the mechanism underlying the relation between the family-to-work interface and workplace safety has not been well studied. From the perspectives of the job demands-resources model as well as conservation of resources theory, this study endeavors to extend the current literature on workplace safety by evaluating the mediating roles of burnout, work engagement, and safety violations in the associations of FWC and FWE with workplace injuries. Two-wave longitudinal survey data were obtained from 233 Chinese employees in two high-risk industries (nursing and railways). The hypothesized longitudinal mediation model was analyzed with the structural equation modeling technique. It was revealed that the association of FWE with workplace injuries was mediated by work engagement and then safety violations. Burnout was found to mediate the association of FWC with workplace injuries. Safety violations were also found to mediate the association of FWC with workplace injuries. The present findings offer insights into the underlying mechanisms by which the family-to-work interface influences workplace injuries.

Psychological Capital and Family Satisfaction among Employees: Do Occupational Stressors Moderate the Relationship?

The COVID-19 pandemic has created more occupational stressors, particularly work-family interface issues. The purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating role of occupational stressors in the relationship between a personal resource (psychological capital) and family satisfaction. A cross-sectional study was carried out with a sample of 787 employees (367 males, 420 females) from the Greater Bay Area of China between October and November 2020. Participants completed an online survey which included the Chinese version of the Psychological Capital Questionnaire, measures of occupational stressors from the Work Stress Management DIY Kit and a measure of family satisfaction. Latent moderated structural equation modeling revealed that family satisfaction was positively associated with psychological capital and negatively associated with occupational stressors. Furthermore, occupational stressors weakened the positive association between psychological capital and family satisfaction. These findings provided empirical evidence for the work-home resources model and may suggest that it would be beneficial to boost psychological capital and reduce occupational stressors of employees.

Occupational Stress and Its Economic Cost in Hong Kong: The Role of Positive Emotions.

There has been less research on the costs of occupational stress attributed to certain job stressors in Chinese contexts. This study identified and validated common job stressors and estimated the economic cost in Hong Kong. The role of positive emotions in alleviating the economic costs of job stressors was also examined. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were adopted. The findings obtained from five focus group discussions and a survey validated five common job stressors: Job insecurity; quantitative workload; organizational constraints; interpersonal conflicts; and work/home interface. A total of 2511 employees were surveyed, with 2032 valid questionnaires returned (925 males, 1104 females, and 3 unidentified, whose ages ranged from 18 to 70 years). The economic costs were estimated by combining the costs of absenteeism, presenteeism, and medical expenses. Absenteeism mainly caused by job stressors of the work/home interface, job insecurity, and quantitative workload accounted for an annual economic cost of HK$550 million to HK$860 million. The annual economic cost due to presenteeism mainly caused by job stressors of job insecurity, interpersonal conflict, quantitative workload, and organizational constraints ranged from HK$1.373 billion to HK$2.146 billion. The cost of medical treatments associated with occupational stress was HK$2.889 billion to HK$4.083 billion. Therefore, the total annual economic cost of occupational stress was approximately HK$4.81 billion to HK$7.09 billion. Positive emotions, representing a less explored individual factor in the cost of occupational stress studies, was found to be negatively correlated with presenteeism and buffered the negative impact of job stressors on absenteeism. The theoretical contributions and practical implications of findings are discussed.

Human Error: The Impact of Job Insecurity on Attention-Related Cognitive Errors and Error Detection.

(1) Background: Work-related stress is a major contributor to human error. One significant workplace stressor is job insecurity, which has been linked to an increased likelihood of experiencing burnout. This, in turn, might affect human error, specifically attention-related cognitive errors (ARCES) and the ability to detect errors. ARCES can be costly for organizations and pose a safety risk. Equally detrimental effects can be caused by failure to detect errors before they can cause harm. (2) Methods: We gathered self-report and behavioral data from 148 employees working in educational, financial and medical sectors in China. We designed and piloted an error detection task in which employees had to compare fictitious customer orders to deliveries of an online shop. We tested for indirect effects using the PROCESS macro with bootstrapping (3) Results: Our findings confirmed indirect effects of job insecurity on both ARCES and the ability to detect errors via burnout. (4) Conclusions: The present research shows that job insecurity influences making and detecting errors through its relationship with burnout. These findings suggest that job insecurity could increase the likelihood for human error with potential implications for employees' safety and the safety of others.

A Three-wave Study of Antecedents of Work-Family Enrichment: The Roles of Social Resources and Affect.

On the basis of conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, ) and the resource-gain-development perspective (Wayne, Grzywacz, Carlson, & Kacmar, ), this paper examines the differential impact of specific social resources (supervisory support and family support) on specific types of affect (job satisfaction and family satisfaction, respectively), which, in turn, influence work-to-family enrichment and family-to-work enrichment, respectively. A sample of 276 Chinese workers completed questionnaires in a three-wave survey. The model was tested with structural equation modelling. Job satisfaction at time 2 partially mediated the relationship between time 1 supervisory support and time 3 work-to-family enrichment (capital), and the effect of supervisory support on work-to-family enrichment (affect) was fully mediated by job satisfaction. Family satisfaction at time 2 fully mediated the relationship between time 1 family support and time 3 family-to-work enrichment (affect, efficiency). Implications for theory, practice and future research are discussed.

Job insecurity and job performance: The moderating role of organizational justice and the mediating role of work engagement.

Organizational justice has been shown to play an important role in employees' affective and performance outcomes particularly in uncertain contexts. In this study, we investigated the interaction effect of job insecurity and organizational justice on employees' performance, and examined the mediating role of work engagement from the perspective of uncertainty management theory. We used 2-wave data (Study 1) from a sample of 140 Chinese employees and 3-wave data (Study 2) from a sample of 125 Chinese employees to test our hypotheses. In Study 1, we found that when employees perceived low levels of organizational justice, job insecurity was significantly negatively related to job performance. In contrast, we found that job insecurity was not related to job performance when there were high levels of organizational justice. Study 2 again supported the interaction of job insecurity and organizational justice on job performance. Furthermore, it was found that work engagement mediated the interaction effect. The results of the mediated moderation analysis revealed that job insecurity was negatively associated with job performance through work engagement when organizational justice was low.

Family mastery enhances work engagement in Chinese nurses: A cross-lagged analysis.

Based on Greenhaus and Powell's (2006) theory of work-family enrichment and the job demands-resources (JD-R) model of work engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008), this study focused on the family-to-work enrichment process by investigating the effect of family mastery on work engagement in a Chinese context. A sample of 279 Chinese female nurses completed questionnaires in a two-wave longitudinal survey. With a cross-lagged analysis, the results indicated that family mastery at Time 1 had a significant positive effect on work engagement at Time 2. Furthermore, the relationship between family mastery and work engagement was stronger in a context of high (vs. low) job demand. These findings suggested that resource generated in family could directly help people stay engaged in the workplace, particularly under stressful working conditions. Our findings have expanded the JD-R model of work engagement and bridged it with theory of work-family enrichment. Implications for theory and practices are discussed.

Work stress, Chinese work values, and work well-being in the Greater China.

Work values influence our attitudes and behavior at work, but they have rarely been explored in the context of work stress. The aim of this research was thus to test direct and moderating effects of Chinese work values (CWV) on relationships between work stressors and work well-being among employees in the Greater China region. A self-administered survey was conducted to collect data from three major cities in the region, namely Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei (N = 380). Work stressors were negatively related to work well-being, whereas CWV were positively related to work well-being. In addition, CWV also demonstrated moderating effects in some of the stressor-job satisfaction relationships.

Work stressors, Chinese coping strategies, and job performance in Greater China.

The aim of this research was to jointly test effects of work stressors and coping strategies on job performance among employees in the Greater China region. A self-administered survey was conducted to collect data from three major cities in the region, namely Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei (N = 380). Four important work stressors were assessed: heavy workload, organizational constraints, lack of work autonomy, and interpersonal conflict. We used a four-factor model of Chinese coping strategies composed of hobbies/relaxation, active action, seeking social support, and passive adaptation. Job performance was indicated by both task performance (quantity of work, quality of work, job knowledge) and contextual performance (attendance, getting along with others). We found that: (1) work stressors were related to job performance. Specifically, workload had a positive relation with quantity of work, whereas organizational constraints had negative relations with quantity of work and attendance. In addition, interpersonal conflict had a negative relation with getting along with others. (2) Chinese positive coping strategies were positively related to job performance. Specifically, seeking social support had positive relations with quantity of work and getting along with others, whereas active action had positive relations with attendance and job knowledge. (3) Chinese passive adaptation coping behaviors were negatively related to job performance. Specifically, passive adaptation had negative relations with quantity of work, quality of work, and getting along with others. The present study thus found joint effects of work stressors and coping behaviors among Chinese employees in the Greater China region, encompassing three sub-societies of mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Differential effects of Chinese positive and passive coping strategies were also noted. Most importantly, all these effects were demonstrated on multiple indicators of job performance, a rarely studied but important strain variable from the organizational point of view.

Antecedents and outcomes of a fourfold taxonomy of work-family balance in Chinese employed parents.

The study provided validity evidence for a fourfold taxonomy of work-family balance that comprises direction of influence (work to family vs. family to work) and types of effect (work-family conflict vs. work-family facilitation). Data were collected from 189 employed parents in China. The results obtained from a confirmatory factor analysis supported the factorial validity of the fourfold taxonomy of work-family balance with a Chinese sample. Child care responsibilities, working hours, monthly salary, and organizational family-friendly policy were positively related to the conflict component of work-family balance; whereas new parental experience, spouse support, family-friendly supervisors and coworkers had significant positive effects on the facilitation component of work-family balance. In comparison with the inconsistent effects of work-family conflict, work to family facilitation had consistent positive effects on work and life attitudes. The implications of findings in relation to China and other countries are discussed in the paper.

Informal social support and older persons' psychological well-being in Hong Kong.

This paper focuses on the importance and the effectiveness of various types of informal support for older persons' psychological well-being. It examines the effects of objective measures of informal support (such as size of social networks and frequency of contact) and subjective measures (such as satisfaction with the support received) on psychological well-being of older occupants in different household circumstances (i.e.,living alone, with spouse or relatives, in old urban areas or new towns, in private or public housing). Data were collected from face-to-face interviews with a sample of 518 older persons (224 males, 294 females) aged 60 and over, systematically drawn from a GIS-derived framework of housing districts in old urban areas and new towns in Hong Kong. The results show that both objective and subjective measures of informal support were related to older persons' psychological well-being, but subjective measures of informal support (specifically satisfaction with support received from family members) were found to be more important predictors of psychological well-being. Furthermore, the effects of size of social network on psychological well-being were stronger for older persons who lived alone than for those who lived with a spouse or relatives. The results also show that persons who lived in the old urban areas received more support than did their counterparts in the new towns and older persons who lived in public housing received more objective informal support than those who lived in private housing. The implications of the findings for policy towards older persons in Hong Kong and similar Asia-Pacific societies are discussed.

The impacts of dwelling conditions on older persons' psychological well-being in Hong Kong: the mediating role of residential satisfaction.

About 11% of Hong Kong's population of 7 million people are aged 65 and over and many of them live in old urban areas. Many of these areas have been subjected to urban redevelopment and some of the residents have been relocated to newer estates in peripheral new towns. Previous studies have focused on the challenges the urban environment has placed on older persons in terms of capability to cope with the demands that the environment places upon them. This paper suggests that dwelling conditions can act as stressors and become contributing factors that impact on older persons' residential satisfaction and psychological well-being (subjective well-being). This study examines the role of residential satisfaction (satisfaction with dwelling unit, estate and district) in mediating the effects of dwelling conditions (interior environment and exterior environment) on psychological well-being. A sample of older persons was recruited from a sampling frame of 16 urban sub-areas located in old urban areas and new towns. 518 older persons (224 males, 294 females) aged 60 and over were interviewed and the findings indicated that residential satisfaction was determined by assessment of both the interior environment and the exterior environment, although these were appraised differently. The interior environment had a greater impact on residential satisfaction than the exterior environment. It appeared that environmental dwelling conditions mainly affected older persons' psychological well-being indirectly and, hence, probably influenced their opportunities for successful ageing. However, subsequent tests revealed that dwelling conditions had no direct impact on psychological well-being. In light of these findings, it is proposed that the role of environmental factors and their relation to older persons' psychological well-being depends on the extent to which a person's expectations of residential satisfaction are met. Some implications of these findings for local housing and social care policy are discussed.

Safety climate and safety performance among construction workers in Hong Kong. The role of psychological strains as mediators.

This paper examines relations among safety climate (safety attitudes and communication), psychological strains (psychological distress and job satisfaction), and safety performance (self-reported accident rates and occupational injuries). A questionnaire was administered to construction workers from 27 construction sites in Hong Kong (N = 374, M = 366, F = 8, mean age =36.68 years). Data were collected by in-depth interviews and a survey from February to May 2000. A path analysis using the EQS-5 was employed to test the hypothesized model relating safety climate, safety performance, and psychological strains. The results provide partial support for the model, in that safety attitudes predict occupational injuries, and psychological distress predicts accident rates. Furthermore, psychological distress was found to be a mediator of the relationship between safety attitudes and accident rates. The implications of these results for psychological interventions in the construction industry are discussed.

Age differences in safety attitudes and safety performance in Hong Kong construction workers.

PROBLEM: Safety in the construction industry is a major issue in Hong Kong, representing about 46% of all occupational injuries in 1998. This study explored linear and curvilinear relations between age and safety performance (accident rates and occupational injuries), as well as safety attitudes, in construction workers in Hong Kong. METHOD: A Chinese version of the Safety Attitude Questionnaire (SAQ by Donald & Canter) was developed and administered to a sample of Chinese construction workers (N=374, 366 males, 8 females) from 27 construction sites. RESULTS: Accident rates were not related to age. Occupational injuries were related to age in a curvilinear manner, with injuries at first increasing with age, then decreasing. Two safety attitude scales were related to age with older workers exhibiting more positive attitudes to safety. If age and tenure are controlled, some attitude scales are predictors of safety performance. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Management/supervisors, team leaders, and workers are all responsible for safety, and any negative bias toward older construction workers is unfounded.

Predictors of job satisfaction and absenteeism in two samples of Hong Kong nurses.

BACKGROUND: Stress-related outcomes of job satisfaction and absenteeism among nurses should receive more attention in Hong Kong because absenteeism is costly. Many nurses' complaints are due to organizational change in privatization since the establishment of the Hong Kong Hospital Authority in 1991. Organizational climate is found to be an antecedent of job dissatisfaction and absenteeism in many studies in western societies. AIM: To investigate the role of organizational climate and psychological distress on job satisfaction; and the role of climate, distress and job satisfaction on absenteeism in Hong Kong nurses, while controlling for demographic variables. METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire survey method was used to collect data from two samples of nurses within a 8-month period. They are, respectively, 144 (74 general nurses, 70 psychiatric nurses; 47 males, 97 females) and 114 (85 general nurses, 29 psychiatric nurses; 17 males, 97 females) nurses. RESULTS: Multiple regression analyses revealed that occupational type (psychiatric/general), environment (the physical conditions in the work area) and psychological distress were significant predictors of job satisfaction for sample 1; and well-being (social relations, welfare and health issues) was the only significant predictor of job satisfaction for sample 2. However, age, involvement (the degree of commitment displayed towards employees by the organization), psychological distress and job satisfaction were significant predictors of absenteeism for sample 1; and occupational type, organization (the interaction between the worker and the organization), and involvement were significant predictors of absenteeism for sample 2. CONCLUSIONS: The empirical findings provide support for the climate-job satisfaction and climate-absenteeism relationships. Psychological distress could be an antecedent of job satisfaction; and job satisfaction could be an antecedent of absenteeism. Certain climate dimensions should be improved to enhance job satisfaction and reduce distress, which in turn will reduce absenteeism.

A study of family support, friendship, and psychological well-being among older women in Hong Kong.

The "dual-channel" hypothesis (Lawton, 1996), which suggests the dual-antecedent pattern for positive and negative aspects of psychological well-being, was tested by examining the differential relationships between objective and subjective measures of family support (family contact, family quality, perceived importance of family) and friendship (friends support, friends quality, perceived importance of friendship) to two facets of psychological well-being (positive and negative affect). Face-to-face interviews were conducted with a sample of 60 older women aged 60 to 85 in one district of Hong Kong. A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses, controlling for age and marital status, demonstrated that two subjective measures (family quality and perceived importance of friendship) were significant predictors of positive affect; and one subjective measure (family quality) was a significant predictor of negative affect. The "dual-channer" hypothesis was partially supported. Recommendations regarding informal support provision for older women are discussed.