A decade of Clostridioides difficile infection: a constant challenge to maintain the status quo.

INTRODUCTION: Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is a leading cause of healthcare-associated (HA) diarrhoea. We retrospectively investigated data from a comprehensive, multidisciplinary C. difficile surveillance programme focusing on hospitalized patients in a tertiary Irish hospital over 10 years. METHODS: Data from 2012 to 2021 were extracted from a centralized database, including patient demographics, admission, case and outbreak details, ribotypes (RTs), and (since 2016) antimicrobial exposures and CDI treatments. Counts of CDI by origin of infection were explored using ꭓ2 analyses, Poisson regression was used to investigate trends in rates of CDI and possible risk factors. Time to recurrent CDI was examined by a Cox proportional hazards regression. RESULTS: Over 10 years, 954 CDI patients had a 9% recurrent CDI rate. CDI testing requests occurred in only 22% of patients. Most CDIs were HA (82.2%) and affected females (odds ratio: 2.3, P<0.01). Fidaxomicin significantly reduced the hazard ratio of time to recurrent CDI. No trends in HA-CDI incidence were observed despite key time-point events and increasing hospital activity. In 2021, community-associated (CA)-CDI increased. RTs did not differ for HA versus CA for the most common RTs (014, 078, 005 and 015). Average length-of-stay differed significantly between HA (67.1 days) and CA (14.6 days) CDI. CONCLUSION: HA-CDI rates remained unchanged despite key events and increased hospital activity, whereas by 2021, CA-CDI was at its highest in a decade. The convergence of CA and HA RTs, and the proportion of CA-CDI, question the relevance of current case definitions when increasingly patients receive hospital care without an overnight hospital stay.

Multidisciplinary neurosurgical rounds incorporating antimicrobial stewardship. Are they of benefit?

Background: In an era of increasing antimicrobial resistance, appropriate antimicrobials are essential to optimise patient outcomes. In 2017, antimicrobial use prevalence (AMU) on the two neurosurgical wards in our tertiary teaching hospital varied from 23% on ward A to 33% on ward B with 67% and 100% 'appropriate' prescriptions, respectively. In July 2018, a weekly antimicrobial stewardship multidisciplinary round led by a senior neurosurgery registrar commenced, attended by the antimicrobial stewardship team (AST). Research question: This report evaluates whether a multi-disciplinary approach on neurosurgical prescribing was beneficial, specifically in reducing AMU. Materials and methods: The following data was collected on AST rounds for 30 weeks in total from August 2018 to July 2019: number of patients on antimicrobials, appropriateness and stewardship actions. A questionnaire was distributed to neurosurgical doctors on two occasions to canvass opinions and attitudes on antimicrobial prescribing. Results: 1716 prescriptions were reviewed (mean 57.2 per week). Of these 321 (18.7%) included antimicrobial prescriptions; 200 on ward A (19.8%), and 121 on ward B (17%), representing a decrease in AMU from 2017. The majority of antimicrobial prescriptions, 271 (84.4%) were deemed appropriate. Stewardship actions were taken in 215 (67%) prescriptions.Fifteen questionnaires were completed by neurosurgical doctors. The majority, 87%, stated the AST round was helpful overall. 93% indicated that informal training on the AST round was a source of education in antibiotic prescribing. Discussion and conclusion: The weekly AST round provided a timely opportunity for multidisciplinary discussion, implementation of antimicrobial stewardship actions and opportunistic antimicrobial stewardship education.

Evolving epidemiology of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales: one hospital's infection prevention and control response over nine years.

BACKGROUND: Preventing carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) transmission is a significant challenge for hospital infection prevention and control teams (IPCTs). Control measures include screening at-risk patients, contact tracing, and the isolation of carriers with contact precautions. AIM: The evolution of infection prevention and control measures was assessed in a tertiary acute care hospital with predominately multi-bedded patient accommodation, from 2011 to 2019 as cases of CPE increased. The implications for, and the response and actions of, the IPCT were also reviewed. METHODS: CPE data collected prospectively from our laboratory, IPCT, and outbreak meeting records were reviewed to assess how the IPCT adapted to the changing epidemiology, from sporadic cases, to outbreaks and to localized endemic CPE. FINDINGS: Of 178 cases, 152 (85%) were healthcare-associated and there was a marked increase in cases from 2017. The number of screening samples tested annually increased from 1190 in 2011 to 16,837 in 2019, and six outbreaks were documented, with larger outbreaks identified in later years. OXA-48 carbapenemase was detected in 88% of isolates and attendance at outbreak meetings alone accounted for 463.5 h of IPCT members, and related staff time. CONCLUSION: Despite considerable efforts and time invested by the IPCT, the number of CPE cases is increasing year-on-year, with more outbreaks being reported in later years, albeit partly in response to increased screening requirements. Infrastructural deficits, the changing epidemiology of CPE, and national policy are major factors in the increasing number of cases.

Food for thought. Malnutrition risk associated with increased risk of healthcare-associated infection.

BACKGROUND: Infection and malnutrition are interconnected. UK and Irish guidelines recommend the Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool (MUST) for nutritional risk screening. Patients with a MUST score of ≥2 are considered at high risk of malnutrition and referral for nutritional assessment is recommended. AIM: To explore the association between healthcare-associated infection (HCAI) and the MUST score categories of patients. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study in May 2017 on ten representative wards in our institution. Patient demographics, MUST score, presence of medical devices, HCAI and antimicrobial use were collected. FINDINGS: Of 240 patients, the HCAI prevalence was 10.4% (N = 25) and 26% (N = 63) were at high risk of malnutrition (MUST score ≥2). Patients with HCAI were more likely to have had surgery (odds ratio (OR): 5.5; confidence interval (CI): 2.1-14.3; P < 0.001), a central vascular catheter (OR: 10.0; CI: 3.6-27.2; P < 0.001), or a urinary catheter in situ (OR: 7.5; CI: 2.8-20.0; P < 0.001), and to have a high risk of malnutrition (OR: 4.3; CI: 1.7-11.2; P < 0.001). A higher MUST score remained a significant predictor of a patient having HCAI on multivariate regression analysis (CI: 0.2-0.6; P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Patients at risk of malnutrition when assessed with the MUST were more likely to have HCAI. However, prospective studies are required to investigate the temporal association between MUST and HCAI and which interventions best address malnutrition risk and HCAI reduction in different settings.

The potential contribution of 16S ribosomal RNA polymerase chain reaction to antimicrobial stewardship in culture-negative infection.

Empiric broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy frequently results in culture-negative specimens making rationalization of therapy difficult. We retrospectively reviewed 16S rRNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results from 78 specimens in 60 patients. 16S rRNA was detected in 28 (47%) patients with de-escalation of therapy in five (21%). Microbial DNA was not detected in 32 (53%) patients with antimicrobials discontinued in two (8%). Neurosurgical patients had a higher proportion of positive results (53% vs 34%) and treatment rationalizations (17% vs 12%). In specific patient groups, 16s rRNA PCR is a useful antimicrobial stewardship tool for targeting antimicrobial therapy.

Evaluation of fixed and variable hospital costs due to Clostridium difficile infection: institutional incentives and directions for future research.

BACKGROUND: Economic analysis of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) should consider the incentives facing institutional decision-makers. To avoid overstating the financial benefits of infection prevention, fixed and variable costs should be distinguished. AIM: To quantify CDI fixed and variable costs in a tertiary referral hospital during August 2015. METHODS: A micro-costing analysis estimated CDI costs per patient, including the additional costs of a CDI outbreak. Resource use was quantified after review of patient charts, pharmacy data, administrative resource input, and records of salary and cleaning/decontamination expenditure. FINDINGS: The incremental cost of CDI was €75,680 (mean: €5,820 per patient) with key cost drivers being cleaning, pharmaceuticals, and length of stay (LOS). Additional LOS ranged from 1.75 to 22.55 days. For seven patients involved in a CDI outbreak, excluding the value of the 58 lost bed-days (€34,585); costs were 30% higher (€7,589 per patient). Therefore, total spending on CDI was €88,062 (mean: €6,773 across all patients). Potential savings from variable costs were €1,026 (17%) or €1,768 (26%) if outbreak costs were included. Investment in an antimicrobial pharmacist would require 47 CDI cases to be prevented annually. Prevention of 5%, 10% and 20% CDI would reduce attributable costs by €4,403, €8,806 and €17,612. Increasing the incremental LOS attributable to CDI to seven days per patient would have increased costs to €7,478 or €8,431 (if outbreak costs were included). CONCLUSION: As much CDI costs are fixed, potential savings from infection prevention are limited. Future analysis must consider more effectively this distinction and its impact on institutional decision-making.

What may be lurking in the hospital undergrowth? Inapparent cross-transmission of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae.

BACKGROUND: Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae pose an increasing challenge in hospitals. AIM: To describe the benefits of using molecular techniques to investigate the spread of ESBL-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-KP) within a tertiary referral centre. METHODS: Following the identification of a cluster of five ESBL-KP on one ward, a hospital-wide retrospective epidemiological investigation was undertaken into the incidence and spread of these organisms. Variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) profiles were used to assign patients to possible clusters. Patient outcome and length of hospital stay were reviewed. Locations of patients assigned to each cluster were investigated as possible sources of spread. Antimicrobial prescribing practices and hand hygiene compliance on affected wards were also reviewed. FINDINGS: Twenty-four ESBL-KP isolates were characterized by VNTR. The mean length of stay was 102.5 days for patients with ESBL-KP, which was significantly longer compared with the mean length of stay for all patients (10.1 days, P < 0.01). Nineteen patients were assigned to clusters with shared VNTR profiles. Review of patient transfer histories identified two instances where cross-transmission may have occurred. In both cases, compliance with good hand hygiene practice and antimicrobial prescribing was suboptimal. CONCLUSION: Molecular typing provided a valuable insight into the clones of ESBL-KP circulating within the study institution. Increased surveillance to identify colonization among patients and routine typing of isolates should be considered, but the resource implications for patient isolation are considerable.

Alcohol attributable hospitalisations and costs in Ireland, 2000-2004.

The aim of this study was to calculate the number and costs of hospital bed-days due to alcohol use in Ireland over the five year period 2000 to 2004. Age and sex specific Irish alcohol-attributable-fractions (AAFs) were developed by combining international risk estimates with Irish consumption data where available; where not available international AAFs were used. These were applied to national datasets to count the number and costs of bed-days wholly caused and prevented by alcohol and that proportion of bed-days that were partially caused and prevented by alcohol. Between 2000 and 2004, alcohol was estimated to have caused 3,428,973 (10.3%) and prevented 529,239 (1.6%) of hospital bed-days, giving a net number of bed-days due to alcohol of 2,899,734 (8.7%). Over this period the hospital inpatient costs attributed to the negative effects of alcohol were 953,126,381 euros, the costs attributed to hospitalisations prevented were 147,968,164 euros; giving net costs of alcohol-attributed bed-days of 805,158,217 euros. Chronic conditions accounted for 3,262,408 (95%) hospital bed-days due to the harmful effects of alcohol. Conditions not wholly due to alcohol accounted for 2,297,412 (67%) hospital bed-days due to the harmful effects of alcohol. The negative impacts of alcohol were greater than previously thought and spread across the whole population.

An investigation of the subtype diversity of clinical isolates of Irish Clostridium difficile ribotypes 027 and 078 by repetitive-extragenic palindromic PCR.

A repetitive-extragenic palindromic PCR (rep-PCR) subtyping method (DiversiLab) in conjunction with ribotyping, toxinotyping and antimicrobial-susceptibility testing was used to detect subtypes within Clostridium difficile ribotypes 027 and 078. Clinical isolates of ribotypes 027 (toxinotype III) (n = 30) and 078 (toxinotype V) (n = 23) were provided by health-care facilities across the Republic of Ireland over 2 months in 2006 and 1 month in 2009. Ribotype 027 isolates were significantly more related to each other (9 different subtype profiles) when compared to ribotype 078 isolates (14 different profiles) (P = 0.001; cut-off >90 % similarity). Almost half of ribotype 078 isolates (45.5 %) showed no relationship to each other. The clonality of ribotype 027 isolates suggests effective adaptation to the human niche, whereas the considerable genetic diversity within ribotype 078 isolates suggests that they may have originated from a variety of sources. Subtyping correlated well with antimicrobial susceptibility, in particular clindamycin susceptibility for ribotype 027, but diverse antimicrobial-susceptibility profiles were seen in ribotype 078 isolates, even within a single health-care facility. Between 2006 and 2009, a change in the predominant subtype of ribotype 027 was seen, with the recent clone representing half of all ribotype 027 isolates studied. This strain exhibited 89 % similarity to a rep-PCR profile of the North American NAP-1 strain.

Burden of antimicrobial resistance in European hospitals: excess mortality and length of hospital stay associated with bloodstream infections due to Escherichia coli resistant to third-generation cephalosporins.

OBJECTIVES: This study determined excess mortality and length of hospital stay (LOS) attributable to bloodstream infection (BSI) caused by third-generation-cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli in Europe. METHODS: A prospective parallel matched cohort design was used. Cohort I consisted of patients with third-generation-cephalosporin-resistant E. coli BSI (REC) and cohort II consisted of patients with third-generation-cephalosporin-susceptible E. coli BSI (SEC). Patients in both cohorts were matched for LOS before infection with patients free of the respective BSI. Thirteen European tertiary care centres participated between July 2007 and June 2008. RESULTS: Cohort I consisted of 111 REC patients and 204 controls and cohort II consisted of 1110 SEC patients and 2084 controls. REC patients had a higher mortality at 30 days (adjusted odds ratio = 4.6) and a higher hospital mortality (adjusted hazard ratio = 5.7) than their controls. LOS was increased by 8 days. For SEC patients, these figures were adjusted odds ratio = 1.9, adjusted hazard ratio = 2.0 and excess LOS = 3 days. A 2.5 times [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.9-6.8] increase in all-cause mortality at 30 days and a 2.9 times (95% CI 1.2-6.9) increase in mortality during entire hospital stay as well as an excess LOS of 5 days (95% CI 0.4-10.2) could be attributed to resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in E. coli BSI. CONCLUSIONS: Morbidity and mortality attributable to third-generation-cephalosporin-resistant E. coli BSI is significant. If prevailing resistance trends continue, high societal and economic costs can be expected. Better management of infections caused by resistant E. coli is becoming essential.