Socioeconomic Disparities and Mediators for Recurrent Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Events After a First Myocardial Infarction.

BACKGROUND: Low socioeconomic status is associated with worse secondary prevention use and prognosis after myocardial infarction (MI). Actions for health equity improvements warrant identification of risk mediators. Therefore, we assessed mediators of the association between socioeconomic status and first recurrent atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease event (rASCVD) after MI. METHODS: In this cohort study on 1-year survivors of first-ever MI with Swedish universal health coverage ages 18 to 76 years, individual-level data from SWEDEHEART (Swedish Web System for Enhancement and Development of Evidence-Based Care in Heart Disease Evaluated According to Recommended Therapies) and linked national registries was collected from 2006 through 2020. Exposure was socioeconomic status by disposable income quintile (principal proxy), educational level, and marital status. The primary outcome was rASCVD and secondary outcomes were cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. We initially assessed the incremental attenuation of hazard ratios with 95% CIs in sequential multivariable models adding groups of potential mediators (ie, previous risk factors, acute presentation and infarct severity, initial therapies, and secondary prevention). Thereafter, the proportion of excess rASCVD associated with a low income mediated through nonparticipation in cardiac rehabilitation, suboptimal statin management, a cardiometabolic risk profile, persistent smoking, and blood pressure above target after MI were calculated using causal mediation analysis. RESULTS: Among 68 775 participants (73.8% men), 7064 rASCVD occurred during a mean 5.7-year follow-up. Income, adjusted for age, sex, and calendar year, was associated with rASCVD (hazard ratio, 1.63 [95% CI, 1.51-1.76] in the lowest versus highest income quintile). Risk attenuated most by adjustment for previous risk factors and by adding secondary prevention variables for a final model (hazard ratio, 1.38 [95% CI, 1.26-1.51]) in the lowest versus highest income quintile. The proportions of the excess 15-year rASCVD risk in the lowest income quintile mediated through nonparticipation in cardiac rehabilitation, cardiometabolic risk profile, persistent smoking, and poor blood pressure control were 3.3% (95% CI 2.1-4.8), 3.9% (95% CI, 2.9-5.5), 15.2% (95% 9.1-25.7), and 1.0% (95% CI 0.6-1.5), respectively. Risk mediation through optimal statin management was negligible. CONCLUSIONS: Nonparticipation in cardiac rehabilitation, a cardiometabolic risk profile, and persistent smoking mediate income-dependent prognosis after MI. In the absence of randomized trials, this causal inference approach may guide decisions to improve health equity.

Association of Socioeconomic Status With Risk Factor Target Achievements and Use of Secondary Prevention After Myocardial Infarction.

Importance: Low socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with poor long-term prognosis after myocardial infarction (MI). Plausible underlying mechanisms have received limited study. Objective: To assess whether SES is associated with risk factor target achievements or with risk-modifying activities, including cardiac rehabilitation programs, monitoring, and drug therapies, during the first year after MI. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study included a population-based consecutive sample of 30 191 one-year survivors of first-ever MI who were 18 to 76 years of age, resided in the general community in Sweden, were followed up until their routine 11- to 15-month revisit, and were registered in the national registry Swedish Web-System for Enhancement and Development of Evidence-Based Care in Heart Disease Evaluated According to Recommended Therapies (SWEDEHEART) from 2006 through 2013. Data analyses were performed from January to August 2020. Exposure: Individual-level SES by proxy disposable income quintile. Secondary exposures were educational level and marital status. Main Outcomes and Measures: Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% CIs for achieved risk factor targets at the 1-year revisit and for use of guideline-recommended secondary prevention activities. Results: The study comprised 30 191 participants (72.9% men) with a mean (SD) age of 63.0 (8.6) years. Overall, higher SES was associated with better target achievements and use of most secondary prevention. The highest (vs lowest) income quintile was associated with achieved smoking cessation (OR, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.78-2.35), target blood pressure levels (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.07-1.27), and glycated hemoglobin levels (OR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.19-2.06). The highest-income quintile was associated not only with participation in physical training programs (OR, 2.28; 95% CI, 2.11-2.46) and patient educational sessions (OR, 2.29; 95% CI, 2.12-2.47) in cardiac rehabilitation but also with more monitoring of lipid profiles (OR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.08-1.33) and intensification of statin therapy (OR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.11-1.35) during the first year after MI. One year after MI, the highest-income quintile was associated with persistent use of statins (OR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.10-1.45), high-intensity statins (OR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.00-1.21), and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.08-1.49). Conclusions and Relevance: Findings indicated that, in a publicly financed health care system, higher SES was associated with better achievement of most risk factor targets, programs aimed at lifestyle change, and evidence-based drug therapies after MI. Observed differences in secondary prevention activity may be a factor in higher long-term risk of recurrent disease among individuals with low SES.

Elevated Blood Pressure in the Emergency Department: A Risk Factor for Incident Cardiovascular Disease.

In the emergency department (ED), high blood pressure (BP) is commonly observed but mostly used to evaluate patients' health in the short term. We aimed to study whether ED-measured BP is associated with incident atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), myocardial infarction, or stroke in long term, and to estimate the number needed to screen to prevent ASCVD. In this cohort study, participants were selected from a university hospital between 2010 and 2016, with an obtained BP in the ED. The outcome information was acquired through the Swedish National Patient Register for all participants. The association was estimated with Cox-regression. Among the included 300 193 subjects, 8999 incident ASCVD events occurred during a median follow-up for 3.5 years. Both DBP and systolic blood pressure were associated with incident ASCVD, myocardial infarction, and stroke with a progressively increased risk for systolic blood pressure within hypertension grade 1 (HR, 1.15 [95% CI, 1.06-1.24]), 2 (HR, 1.35 [95% CI, 1.25-1.47]), and 3 (HR, 1.63 [95% CI, 1.49-1.77]). The 6-year cumulative incidence of ASCVD was 12% for systolic blood pressure ≥180 mm Hg compared with 2% for normal levels. To prevent one ASCVD event during the median follow-up, the number needed to screen was estimated to 151, whereas the number needed to treat to 71. ED-recorded BP is associated with incident ASCVD, myocardial infarction, and stroke. High-BP recordings in EDs should not be disregarded but an opportunity to detect and improve the treatment of hypertension. ED-measured BP provides an important and underused tool with great potential to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with hypertension. Clinical Trial Registration- URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT03954119.

Lipid levels achieved after a first myocardial infarction and the prediction of recurrent atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

BACKGROUND: Low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) goals post-myocardial infarction (MI) are debated, and the significance of achieved blood lipid levels for predicting a first recurrent atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (rASCVD) event post-MI is unclear. METHODS: This was a cohort study on first-ever MI survivors aged ≤76 years attending 4-14 week revisits throughout Sweden 2005-2013. Personal-level data was collected from SWEDEHEART and linked national registries. Exposures were quintiles of LDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol (TC), and triglycerides (TGs) at the revisit. Group level associations with rASCVD (nonfatal MI or coronary heart disease death or fatal or nonfatal ischemic stroke) were estimated in Cox regression models. Predictive capacity was estimated by differences in C-statistic, integrated discriminatory improvement, and net reclassification improvement when adding each blood lipid to a validated risk prediction model. RESULTS: 25,643 patients, 96.9% on statin therapy, were followed during a mean of 4.1 years. rASCVD occurred in 2173 patients (8.5%). For LDL-C and TC, moderate associations with rASCVD were observed only in the 5th vs. the lowest (referent) quintiles. For TGs and HDL-C increased risks were observed in quintiles 3-5 vs. the lowest. Minor predictive improvements were observed when lipid fractions were added to the risk model but the discrimination overall was poor (C-statistics <0.6). CONCLUSIONS: Our data question the importance of LDL-C levels achieved at first revisit post-MI for decisions on continued treatment intensity considering the weak association with rASCVD observed in this post-MI cohort.

Socioeconomic status predicts second cardiovascular event in 29,226 survivors of a first myocardial infarction.

Background Risk assessment post-myocardial infarction needs improvement, and risk factors derived from general populations apply differently in secondary prevention. The prediction of subsequent cardiovascular events post-myocardial infarction by socioeconomic status has previously been poorly studied. Design Swedish nationwide cohort study. Methods A total of 29,226 men and women (27%), 40-76 years of age, registered at the standardised one year revisit after a first myocardial infarction in the secondary prevention quality registry of SWEDEHEART 2006-2014. Personal-level data on socioeconomic status measured by disposable income and educational level, marital status, and the primary endpoint, first recurrent event of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, defined as non-fatal myocardial infarction or coronary heart disease death or fatal or non-fatal stroke were obtained from linked national registries. Results During the mean 4.1-year follow-up, 2284 (7.8%) first recurrent manifestations of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease occurred. Both socioeconomic status indicators and marital status were associated with the primary endpoint in multivariable Cox regression models. In a comprehensively adjusted model, including secondary preventive treatment, the hazard ratio for the highest versus lowest quintile of disposable income was 0.73 (95% confidence interval 0.62-0.83). The association between disposable income and first recurrent manifestation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease was stronger in men as was the risk associated with being unmarried (tests for interaction P < 0.05). Conclusions Among one year survivors of a first myocardial infarction, first recurrent manifestation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease was predicted by disposable income, level of education and marital status. The association between disposable income and first recurrent manifestation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease was independent of secondary preventive treatment but further study on causal pathways is needed.

Asking the Patient or Measuring Blood Pressure in the Emergency Department: Which One is Best?

Blood pressure (BP) is obtained at the emergency department (ED) in the vast majority of patients; irrespective of chief complaint, and elevated BP, above the threshold for hypertension, is a common observation. In this review, we address the predictive value of measured BP in the ED compared to that of a history of hypertension in patients with chief complaints related to cardiovascular disease. In chest pain patients, a high BP at the ED is associated to a good prognosis, whereas the history of hypertension is associated to a poor prognosis. In heart failure, a high admission BP is consistently linked to a good prognosis, whereas the clinical value of history of hypertension in the ED is unknown. In stroke, there is a U-shaped relation between admission BP and outcome. A history of hypertension is common among stroke patients but does not seem to provide any predictive value in the ED.

Amino-Terminal Pro-B-Type Natriuretic Peptide Improves Discrimination for Incident Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Beyond Ambulatory Blood Pressure in Elderly Men.

Improvement of risk prediction for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is needed. Both ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) and biomarkers amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and cystatin C improve risk prediction but they have not been evaluated in relation to each other. We analyzed whether NT-proBNP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, or cystatin C improved risk prediction beyond traditional ASCVD risk factors combined with 24-hour systolic BP (SBP). Secondary aim was to evaluate whether ABP improved risk prediction when compared with models with the biomarkers. We followed up 907 70-year-old men, free of baseline disease, for incident ASCVD defined as fatal or nonfatal myocardial infarction or fatal or nonfatal stroke for a median of 10 years. Cox regression was used to estimate the association between variables in the models and incident ASCVD. Biomarkers were added to a model containing both traditional risk factors and ABP and the models were compared on C-statistics and net reclassification improvement. Twenty-four hour SBP improved discrimination for incident ASCVD when compared with office SBP in a traditional risk factor model (area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve, +2.4%). NT-proBNP further improved reclassification (+18.7%-19.9%; P<0.01) when added to ABP models, whereas high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and cystatin C did not. Twenty-four hour SBP significantly improved net reclassification when added to a traditional risk factor model that included NT-proBNP. The combination of 24-hour SBP and NT-proBNP improved discrimination and net reclassification for incident ASCVD when compared with office SBP in elderly men. NT-proBNP, but not high-sensitivity C-reactive protein or cystatin C, improved risk prediction and discrimination when added to a model that included ABP.

Amlodipine+benazepril is superior to hydrochlorothiazide+benazepril irrespective of baseline pulse pressure: subanalysis of the ACCOMPLISH trial.

Pulse pressure (PP) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular (CV) disease and death but few studies have investigated the effect of antihypertensive treatments in relation to PP levels before treatment. The Avoiding Cardiovascular Events Through Combination Therapy in Patients Living With Systolic Hypertension (ACCOMPLISH) trial showed that the combination of benazepril+amlodipine (B+A) is superior to benazepril+hydrochlorothiazide (B+H) in reducing CV events. We aimed to investigate whether the treatment effects in the ACCOMPLISH trial were dependent on baseline PP. High-risk hypertensive patients (n=11,499) were randomized to double-blinded treatment with single-pill combinations of either B+A or B+H and followed for 36 months. Patients were divided into tertiles according to their baseline PP and events (CV mortality/myocardial infarction or stroke) were compared. Hazard ratios (HRs) for the treatment effect (B+A over B+H) were calculated in a Cox regression model with age, coronary artery disease, and diabetes mellitus as covariates and were compared across the tertiles. The event rate was increased in the high tertile of PP compared with the low tertile (7.2% vs 4.4% P<.01). In the high and medium PP tertiles, HRs were 0.75 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.60-0.95; P=.018) and 0.74 (CI, 0.56-0.98, P=.034), respectively, in favor of B+A. There was no significant difference between the treatments in the low tertile and no significant differences in treatment effect when comparing the HRs between tertiles of PP. B+A has superior CV protection over B+H in high-risk hypertensive patients independent of baseline PP although the absolute treatment effect is enhanced in the higher tertiles of PP where event rates are higher.

Amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein but not cystatin C predict cardiovascular events in male patients with peripheral artery disease independently of ambulatory pulse pressure.

BACKGROUND: Patients with peripheral arterial disease (PAD) are at high risk for cardiovascular (CV) events. We have previously shown that ambulatory pulse pressure (APP) predicts CV events in PAD patients. The biomarkers amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and cystatin C are related to a worse outcome in patients with CV disease, but their predictive values have not been studied in relation to APP. METHODS: Blood samples and 24-hour measurements of ambulatory blood pressure were examined in 98 men referred for PAD evaluation during 1998-2001. Patients were followed for a median of 71 months. The outcome variable was CV events defined as either CV mortality or any hospitalization for myocardial infarction, stroke, or coronary revascularization. The predictive values of log(NT-proBNP), log(hs-CRP), and log(cystatin C) alone and together with APP were assessed by multivariable Cox regression. Area under the curve (AUC) and net reclassification improvement (NRI) were calculated compared with a model containing other significant risk factors. RESULTS: During follow-up, 36 patients had at least 1 CV event. APP, log(NT-proBNP), and log(hs-CRP) all predicted CV events in univariable analysis, whereas log(cystatin C) did not. In multivariable analysis log(NT-proBNP) (hazard ratio (HR) = 1.62; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.05-2.51) and log(hs-CRP) (HR = 1.63; 95% CI = 1.19-2.24) predicted events independently of 24-hour PP. The combination of log(NT-proBNP), log(hs-CRP), and average day PP improved risk discrimination (AUC = 0.833 vs. 0.736; P < 0.05) and NRI (37%; P < 0.01) when added to other significant risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: NT-proBNP and hs-CRP predict CV events independently of APP and the combination of hs-CRP, NT-proBNP, and day PP improves risk discrimination in PAD patients.

Ambulatory pulse pressure predicts cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease.

BACKGROUND: Patients with peripheral arterial disease (PAD) are at high risk of cardiovascular (CV) events and often have hypertension with a high pulse pressure (PP). We studied the prognostic value of ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) in PAD patients with special reference to PP. METHODS: 98 consecutive males with PAD had 24-h ABP measurements. The mean age was 68 years and CV comorbidity was prevalent. The outcome variable was CV events defined as CV mortality or any hospitalization for myocardial infarction, stroke or coronary revascularization. The predictive value of ABP variables was assessed by Cox regression. 90 age-matched men free of CV disease served as controls. RESULTS: During follow-up (median 71 months), 36 patients and seven controls had at least one CV event. In PAD patients, 24-h PP (hazard ratios, HR, 1.48 (95% confidence interval, CI, 1.14-1.92), p <0.01) predicted CV events. Office PP did not predict events in PAD patients (HR 1.15 (0.97-1.38), ns). In multivariate analysis, 24-h PP (HR 1.48 (1.12-1.95), p <0.01) remained a predictor of CV events. CONCLUSIONS: Ambulatory PP predicts CV events in patients with PAD. ABP measurement may be indicated for better risk stratification in PAD patients.