Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2015-17 in Latin America (Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica): data based on CLSI, EUCAST (dose-specific) and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) breakpoints.

OBJECTIVES: To determine antibiotic susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae isolates from community-acquired respiratory tract infections (CA-RTIs) collected in 2015-17 from Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica. METHODS: MICs were determined by CLSI broth microdilution and susceptibility was assessed using CLSI, EUCAST (dose-specific) and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) breakpoints. RESULTS: A total of 170 S. pneumoniae and 218 H. influenzae isolates were collected at five centres in Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica in 2015-17. Small S. pneumoniae isolate numbers from Costa Rica (n = 2) meant that these could only be included in the penicillin susceptibility analysis; they were excluded from further country analyses. Around one-third of pneumococcal isolates from Argentina and two-thirds from Chile were non-susceptible to penicillin by CLSI oral or EUCAST low-dose IV breakpoints, but most (≥89%) were susceptible by CLSI IV or EUCAST high-dose breakpoints. Amongst pneumococci from Argentina, about 80% or more were susceptible to most other antibiotics except cefaclor (all breakpoints), cefixime (PK/PD breakpoints), cefuroxime (EUCAST breakpoints) and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (CLSI and PK/PD breakpoints). S. pneumoniae isolates from Chile showed significantly lower susceptibility (P < 0.05) using CLSI breakpoints compared with those from Argentina for many of the antibiotics tested. Among isolates of H. influenzae from Latin America, more than 90% were susceptible to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (high dose), cefixime, cefpodoxime, ceftriaxone and fluoroquinolones, irrespective of the breakpoints used. The application of different EUCAST breakpoints for low and higher doses for some of the antibiotics (amoxicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, ampicillin, penicillin, ceftriaxone, clarithromycin, erythromycin, levofloxacin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) allowed, for the first time in a SOAR study, the effect of raising the dosage on susceptibility to be quantified. CONCLUSIONS: Antibiotic susceptibility of H. influenzae isolates was generally high in the Latin American countries studied; however, susceptibility profiles varied for S. pneumoniae by country and depending on the breakpoints used, especially for cefaclor. These factors are important in decision making for empirical therapy of bacterial infections.

[In vitro activity of doripenem and other carbapenems against Pseudomonas aeruginosa]. / Actividad comparativa in vitro de doripenem y de otros carbapenemes frente a Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Doripenem, a new carbapenem, has shown to be more active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa than other carbapenems. The activity of doripenem, imipenem and meropenem was evaluated against 93 P. aeruginosa isolates, by agar dilution and disk diffusion methods. MIC50 and MIC90, were as follows (microg/ml): doripenem, 2 and 4; meropenem, 2 and 8; and imipenem, 4 and 8, respectively. Doripenem MICs were 1 to 3 dilutions lower (i.e. more active) than those for imipenem in 82% of the isolates. In comparison with meropenem, doripenem was 1 to 3 dilutions more active in 50% of the isolates. Forty-nine percent of isolates showed the same MIC for both antibiotics. Resistance percentages for both methods were (dilution/diffusion): imipenem = 7.5%/49.5% and meropenem = 3.2%/9.7%. As the CLSI has not established cut off values for doripenem yet, resistance rates for this antibiotic were estimated by considering (a) the same cut off values for imipenem/meropenem set up by the CLSI, and (b) those suggested by Brown et al. In case (a), resistance rates would be 1.1%/2.2% whereas in case (b) 1.1%/17.2% for agar dilution and disk diffusion, respectively. In scenarios where resistance to carbapenem is based on mechanisms other than carbapenemases, doripenem has a promising future for treating P. aeruginosa infections.

Actividad comparativa in vitro de doripenem y de otros carbapenemes frente a Pseudomonas aeruginosa / In vitro activity of doripenem and other carbapenems against Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Según estudios previos, el nuevo carbapeneme doripenem sería más activo frente a Pseudomonas aeruginosa en comparación con otros carbapenemes. En este estudio evaluamos la actividad in vitro del doripenem, el meropenem y el imipenem frente a 93 aislamientos de P. aeruginosa mediante los métodos de dilución en agar y de difusión con discos. Las CIM50 y CIM90 de los carbapenemes fueron (μg/ml): imipenem, 4 y 8; meropenem, 2 y 8; doripenem, 2 y 4, respectivamente. El doripenem fue 1 a 3 diluciones más activo que el imipenem para un 82% de los aislamientos. Comparado con el meropenem, el doripenem fue, 1-3 diluciones más activo frente a un 50% de los aislamientos, mientras que en el 49% la CIM fue la misma. Los porcentajes de resistencia según los métodos de dilución y de difusión fueron: imipenem = 7,5%/49,5% y meropenem = 3,2%/9,7%. Para el doripenem, estos valores variaron según los puntos de corte (PC) que se consideraron: 1,1%/2,2% usando el PC del CLSI para el imipenem y el meropenem, o 1,1%/17,2% según los PC sugeridos por Brown et al. El método de difusión presentó un elevado porcentaje de errores menores en la categorización de los aislamientos respecto de la dilución en agar, lo que sobrestimó la resistencia. El doripenem mostró muy buena actividad frente a P. aeruginosa, superior a la del imipenem y al menos equiparable a la del meropenem, por lo que puede considerarse una interesante opción para el tratamiento de infecciones por esta bacteria.

Doripenem, a new carbapenem, has shown to be more active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa than other carbapenems. The activity of doripenem, imipenem and meropenem was evaluated against 93 P. aeruginosa isolates, by agar dilution and disk diffusion methods. MIC50 and MIC90 were as follows (μg/ml): doripenem, 2 and 4; meropenem, 2 and 8; and imipenem, 4 and 8, respectively. Doripenem MICs were 1 to 3 dilutions lower (i.e. more active) than those for imipenem in 82% of the isolates. In comparison with meropenem, doripenem was 1 to 3 dilutions more active in 50% of the isolates. Forty-nine percent of isolates showed the same MIC for both antibiotics. Resistance percentages for both methods were (dilution/diffusion): imipenem = 7.5%/49.5% and meropenem = 3.2%/9.7%. As the CLSI has not established cut off values for doripenem yet, resistance rates for this antibiotic were estimated by considering (a) the same cut off values for imipenem/meropenem set up by the CLSI, and (b) those suggested by Brown et al. In case (a), resistance rates would be 1.1%/2.2% whereas in case (b) 1.1%/17.2% for agar dilution and disk diffusion, respectively. In scenarios where resistance to carbapenem is based on mechanisms other than carbapenemases, doripenem has a promising future for treating P. aeruginosa infections.

[In vitro activity of tigecycline in clinical isolates of multidrug resistant Acinetobacter spp. Comparison of different methods of evaluation]. / Actividad in vitro de la tigeciclina en aislamientos clínicos de Acinetobacter spp. multirresistentes. Comparación de diferentes métodos de evaluación.

Infections caused by multidrug resistant (MDRA) Acinetobacter spp. have increased worldwide. Tigecycline provides a new therapeutic option for treating these infections. We conducted a study tailored to validate an in house methodology by broth microdilution (BM) vs. commercial BM in 32 MDRA isolates. Sixty MDRA isolated in 2 time periods (2000-2003 and 2006-2008) were compared by BM, agar dilution (AD) and disk diffusion (DD) methods, as described by the CLSI and the MIC90 for each period was determined. Susceptibility was interpreted by using the breakpoints suggested by the FDA for Enterobacteriaceae. The correlation between the methodologies was performed by a scattergram, and the errors between methods were calculated. The correlation coefficients between AD and BM, and BM and DD were, r: 0.68 in both cases. For 2002-2003, the MIC90 for BM was: 1 g/ml, and for 2006-2008: 2 microg/ml. Using the FDA breakpoints for DD, we observed an unacceptable minor error (17.6%) because of false-intermediate values, considering the MIC90 was 1-2 microg/ml.

Uropathogen resistance: are laboratory-generated data reliable enough?

Therapy of uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI) is based on knowledge of in vitro susceptibility profiles of uropathogens in the geographic region. Microbiological surveillance systems, which lack epidemiological and clinical data to differentiate between complicated and uncomplicated UTI may incorrectly estimate rates of resistance in the community. We determined the susceptibility profile of bacteria isolated from a random sample of 124 adult outpatients with diagnosis of uncomplicated UTI and we compared it with all outpatient urine specimens collected by the same participant laboratories during the same period. Escherichia coli was the most frequently isolated uropathogen in patients with uncomplicated UTI, and its rate of resistance to different antimicrobials was lower than overall resistance rates to E. coli reported by the participating laboratories during the same period. Resistance to cotrimoxazole was significantly lower. These results suggest that surveillance systems without clinical and epidemiological data may incorrectly gauge uropathogen resistance in the community.

Modified Spot CAMP Test: A rapid, inexpensive and accurate method for identification of group B streptococci.

A rapid modified spot CAMP test using 183 clinical isolates of beta haemolytic streptococci was compared with the standard CAMP test described by Christie et al. The scheme of biochemical identification and serological confirmation was taken as reference method. The sensitivity of both tests was 100%, and the specificity of the rapid and standard tests was 96.8% and 88.9% respectively. The modified spot CAMP test is a rapid, inexpensive and accurate method for the identification of group B streptococci, and is more specific than the standard CAMP test.

[Microbiologic study of bacteremia and fungemia in chronic hemodialysis patients]. / Estudio microbiológico de bacteriemias y fungemias en pacientes en hemodiálisis crónica.

Microbiologic study of bacteremia and fungemia in chronic hemodialysis patients. Bloodstream infections are the second cause of death in patients in chronic hemodialysis (CHD), and the knowledge of the epidemiology is useful to establish proper empiric therapies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency and distribution of microorganisms, in bacteremia and fungemia in 530 patients in CHD. Two hundred and forty eight blood culture series from 114 patients with suspected bacteremia were processed; 44% of them were positive from which 71% (n=78) were clinically significative and belonged to 58 patients. Sixty eight percent of these isolates were gram-positive cocci (n:53), and 22% gram-negative rods (n:17). Staphylococcus aureus was the most prevalent pathogen showing 23% of methicillin-resistance. Candida spp. was the fourth pathogen most common in frequency.

Estudio microbiológico de bacteriemias y fungemias en pacientes en hemodiálisis crónica / [Microbiologic study of bacteremia and fungemia in chronic hemodialysis patients]

Microbiologic study of bacteremia and fungemia in chronic hemodialysis patients. Bloodstream infections are the second cause of death in patients in chronic hemodialysis (CHD), and the knowledge of the epidemiology is useful to establish proper empiric therapies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency and distribution of microorganisms, in bacteremia and fungemia in 530 patients in CHD. Two hundred and forty eight blood culture series from 114 patients with suspected bacteremia were processed; 44

(n=78) were clinically significative and belonged to 58 patients. Sixty eight percent of these isolates were gram-positive cocci (n:53), and 22

gram-negative rods (n:17). Staphylococcus aureus was the most prevalent pathogen showing 23

of methicillin-resistance. Candida spp. was the fourth pathogen most common in frequency.

Modified Spot CAMP Test: A rapid, inexpensive and accurate method for identification of group B streptococci / Prueba de CAMP por spot modificada: Un método rápido, preciso y económico para la identificación de estreptococos grupo B

A rapid modified spot CAMP test using 183 clinical isolates of β haemolytic streptococci was compared with the standard CAMP test described by Christie et al. The scheme of biochemical identification and serological confirmation was taken as reference method. The sensitivity of both tests was 100%, and the specificity of the rapid and standard tests was 96.8% and 88.9% respectively. The modified spot CAMP test is a rapid, inexpensive and accurate method for the identification of group B streptococci, and is more specific than the standard CAMP test.

En este estudio se comparó los resultados de una prueba de CAMP por spot modificada en 20 minutos y la prueba de CAMP original descripta por Christie et al usada para la identificación de Streptococcus agalactiae. Se analizaron 183 aislamientos de estreptococos β hemolíticos, tomando como método de referencia el esquema tradicional de identificación bioquímica y confirmación serológica. La sensibilidad de ambas pruebas fue del 100% y la especificidad de la prueba rápida y la estándar fue de 96,8% y 88,9% respectivamente. La prueba de CAMP por spot modificada es un método rápido, económico y seguro para la identificación de estreptococos del grupo B y posee mayor especificidad que la prueba original.

Modified Spot CAMP Test: A rapid, inexpensive and accurate method for identification of group B streptococci.

A rapid modified spot CAMP test using 183 clinical isolates of beta haemolytic streptococci was compared with the standard CAMP test described by Christie et al. The scheme of biochemical identification and serological confirmation was taken as reference method. The sensitivity of both tests was 100

, and the specificity of the rapid and standard tests was 96.8

and 88.9

respectively. The modified spot CAMP test is a rapid, inexpensive and accurate method for the identification of group B streptococci, and is more specific than the standard CAMP test.

Estudio microbiológico de bacteriemias y fungemias en pacientes en hemodiálisis crónica. / [Microbiologic study of bacteremia and fungemia in chronic hemodialysis patients]

Microbiologic study of bacteremia and fungemia in chronic hemodialysis patients. Bloodstream infections are the second cause of death in patients in chronic hemodialysis (CHD), and the knowledge of the epidemiology is useful to establish proper empiric therapies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency and distribution of microorganisms, in bacteremia and fungemia in 530 patients in CHD. Two hundred and forty eight blood culture series from 114 patients with suspected bacteremia were processed; 44

of them were positive from which 71

(n=78) were clinically significative and belonged to 58 patients. Sixty eight percent of these isolates were gram-positive cocci (n:53), and 22

gram-negative rods (n:17). Staphylococcus aureus was the most prevalent pathogen showing 23

of methicillin-resistance. Candida spp. was the fourth pathogen most common in frequency.

Prospective evaluation of in-house polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of mycobacterial diseases in patients with HIV infection and lung infiltrates.

SETTING: Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in AIDS is critical for optimal treatment to reduce mycobacterial dissemination, HIV-1 replication and mortality. The inadequate sensitivity of Ziehl-Neelsen staining and its inability to distinguish atypical mycobacteria delays accurate diagnosis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for diagnosis of TB in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), blood and extra-pulmonary samples from patients with AIDS and pulmonary infiltrates. DESIGN: Specimens from 103 HIV-1-infected patients were prospectively analysed using bacteriological methods and IS6110-PCR. Smear-positive samples were also tested using 16S ribosomal-DNA-PCR to identify Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infections. Gold standard diagnosis relied on positive cultures or treatment outcome. RESULTS: Thirty-four patients exhibited TB, one TB and MAC and four MAC. The sensitivity of IS6110-PCR was 100% in smear-positive samples, 81.8% in smear-negative BAL, 66.7% in extra-pulmonary samples and 42.9% in blood. Its specificity was 97.1% in BAL and 100% in extra-pulmonary and blood specimens. The 16S rDNA-PCR identified M. avium from all smear-positive samples that grew MAC. CONCLUSIONS: IS6110-PCR proved useful in evaluating episodes with probable clinical diagnosis of pulmonary or mixed TB and negative smears, whereas 16S rDNA-PCR would be helpful for prompt differential diagnosis of MAC in smear-positive specimens.

Erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes in Argentina

Erythromycin (ERY) resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes has recently emerged as a problem of growing concern all through the world. We are presenting the comparison of results of the continuous surveillance of erythromycin resistance in S. pyogenes performed since 1989 in the Hospital de Pediatría J.P.Garrahan of Buenos Aires City, with independently observed rates in other five centers of Buenos Aires and seven centers of six other Argentinian cities, obtained between 1999 and 2001. A significant increase of erythromycin resistance was observed among S. pyogenes isolated in the Hospital Garrahan (6.6% in 1998-1999 to 9.9% in 2000). Similar trends were also detected in other centers of other Argentinian cities when recent data were compared to results of a multicenter study performed in 1995. However, lower rates of resistance were recorded in Mendoza, Cipolletti and Neuquén in comparison with data of 1995, 1998 and 1998 respectively. The reason of such decreasing resistance rates deserves to be investigated. The average of ERY-resistance rates obtained in the surveyed centers was 6.7% (range 0.5-14.1%). Control of antimicrobial use should be performed to warrant the future effectiveness of macrolide antibiotics regarding the positive association between use and resistance. These results also suggest that susceptibility tests for macrolides should be performed whenever S. pyogenes is isolated in Argentina.(AU)

La resistencia a la eritromicina en Streptococcus pyogenes ha emergido en los últimos tiempos como un problema creciente en todo el mundo. En este trabajo se presenta la comparación de los resultados de la vigilancia continua de la resistencia a la eritromicina que se viene realizando en el Hospital de Pediatría J.P.Garrahan de Buenos Aires desde 1989, con resultados independientes de otros cinco centros de la ciudad de Buenos Aires y siete de otras seis ciudades argentinas, obtenidos entre 1999 y 2001. Se observó un aumento significativo en el Hospital Garrahan (6.6% en1998-1999 a 9.9% en el año 2000) y una tendencia similar en otros centros de diversas ciudades argentinas si secomparan estos datos con los de un estudio multicéntrico realizado en 1995. No obstante, se registraron menoresporcentajes de resistencia en Mendoza, Neuquén y Cipolletti, en relación a lo hallado en 1995, 1998 y 1998respectivamente. La razón de esta disminución merece ser investigada. El porcentaje promedio de resistencia aeritromicina obtenido en los distintos centros participantes de este estudio fue de 6.7% (rango 0.5-14.1%). Debeefectuarse un control en el uso de estos antibióticos para garantizar la efectividad futura de los macrólidos, teniendo en cuenta la asociación estrecha entre uso y resistencia. Estos resultados sugieren que deberían realizarse pruebas de sensibilidad a los macrólidos para todos los aislamientos de S. pyogenes en la Argentina.(AU)

Erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes in Argentina

Erythromycin (ERY) resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes has recently emerged as a problem of growing concern all through the world. We are presenting the comparison of results of the continuous surveillance of erythromycin resistance in S. pyogenes performed since 1989 in the Hospital de Pediatría J.P.Garrahan of Buenos Aires City, with independently observed rates in other five centers of Buenos Aires and seven centers of six other Argentinian cities, obtained between 1999 and 2001. A significant increase of erythromycin resistance was observed among S. pyogenes isolated in the Hospital Garrahan (6.6% in 1998-1999 to 9.9% in 2000). Similar trends were also detected in other centers of other Argentinian cities when recent data were compared to results of a multicenter study performed in 1995. However, lower rates of resistance were recorded in Mendoza, Cipolletti and Neuquén in comparison with data of 1995, 1998 and 1998 respectively. The reason of such decreasing resistance rates deserves to be investigated. The average of ERY-resistance rates obtained in the surveyed centers was 6.7% (range 0.5-14.1%). Control of antimicrobial use should be performed to warrant the future effectiveness of macrolide antibiotics regarding the positive association between use and resistance. These results also suggest that susceptibility tests for macrolides should be performed whenever S. pyogenes is isolated in Argentina.

La resistencia a la eritromicina en Streptococcus pyogenes ha emergido en los últimos tiempos como un problema creciente en todo el mundo. En este trabajo se presenta la comparación de los resultados de la vigilancia continua de la resistencia a la eritromicina que se viene realizando en el Hospital de Pediatría J.P.Garrahan de Buenos Aires desde 1989, con resultados independientes de otros cinco centros de la ciudad de Buenos Aires y siete de otras seis ciudades argentinas, obtenidos entre 1999 y 2001. Se observó un aumento significativo en el Hospital Garrahan (6.6% en1998-1999 a 9.9% en el año 2000) y una tendencia similar en otros centros de diversas ciudades argentinas si secomparan estos datos con los de un estudio multicéntrico realizado en 1995. No obstante, se registraron menoresporcentajes de resistencia en Mendoza, Neuquén y Cipolletti, en relación a lo hallado en 1995, 1998 y 1998respectivamente. La razón de esta disminución merece ser investigada. El porcentaje promedio de resistencia aeritromicina obtenido en los distintos centros participantes de este estudio fue de 6.7% (rango 0.5-14.1%). Debeefectuarse un control en el uso de estos antibióticos para garantizar la efectividad futura de los macrólidos, teniendo en cuenta la asociación estrecha entre uso y resistencia. Estos resultados sugieren que deberían realizarse pruebas de sensibilidad a los macrólidos para todos los aislamientos de S. pyogenes en la Argentina.

Multicentre study of the in vitro evaluation of moxifloxacin and other quinolones against community acquired respiratory pathogens.

The in vitro activity of moxifloxacin was compared with that of ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, ofloxacin and trovafloxacin against 710 strains (180 Streptococcus pneumoniae, 180 Haemophilus influenzae, 160 Moraxella catarrhalis and 190 Streptococcus pyogenes) isolated from patients with community-acquired respiratory tract infections. MIC values for moxifloxacin, trovafloxacin were 0.25/0.25, 0.03/0.03, 0.06/0.03 and 0.125/0.0125 mg/l for S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, M. catharralis and S. pyogenes. Based upon the MIC(90) values and the MIC distributions, moxifloxacin and trovafloxacin were the most active of the quinolones tested. They showed enhanced activity against Gram-positive organisms including penicillin non susceptible S. pneumoniae strains. Moxifloxacin was also highly active against ciprofloxacin-resistant S. pneumoniae strains.

Rationale for treating community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections with amoxicillin/sulbactam combination through pharmacodynamic analysis in the setting of aminopenicillin-resistant organisms.

In order to establish a rationale for treating community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections, we assess here the pharmacodynamics of amoxicillin/sulbactam, 500mg/500mg, a formulation marketed in Argentina since 1988 and currently available in 17 countries, against the major pathogens, in comparison with that of a novel formulation (875mg/125mg, see J Chemother 2000; 12: 223-227). In time-kill studies, both bactericidal and inhibitory activity were seen in the 1.5- and 6-h sera, obtained from 12 volunteers after a single oral dose, against both a penicillin-susceptible and an -intermediate Streptococcus pneumoniae strain, as well as against Moraxella catarrhalis and a beta-lactamase-negative Haemophilus influenzae strain. Only the 1.5-h sera proved bactericidal against a penicillin-resistant S. pneumoniae strain (MIC, 2 microg/ml) and a beta-lactamse-positive H. influenzae isolate. This study suggests that amoxicillin/sulbactam (500mg/500mg) is still a suitable option for treating community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections, allowing a b.i.d. dosing schedule. Caution should be taken with pneumonia caused by beta-lactamase-positive H. influenzae or penicillin-resistant (MIC > or =2 microg/ml) S. pneumoniae isolates. Either shorter dosing intervals (t.i.d.) or a higher amoxicillin content in the formulation (i.e. 875 mg) may be required in these situations.

[Clostridium difficile diarrhea: frequency of detection in a medical center in Buenos Aires, Argentina]. / Diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile: frecuencia de detección en un centro médico de Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Clostridium difficile has been recognized as the most important enteric pathogen of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in adults from industrialized countries. The importance of C. difficile as a cause of diarrhea in ambulatory patients appears underestimated or under-recognized. Since the 1980's, outbreaks of CDAD have been increasingly reported, but there are few data available in Argentina. We developed a retrospective study to provide some information about CDAD in our country. From July 1998 to November 1999, a total of 245 fecal specimens from hospitalized and some ambulatory patients were tested in order to confirm the diagnosis of CDAD. C. difficile cytotoxin (toxin B) was identified by detecting its cytopathic effect on monolayers of McCoy culture cells. For culture and isolation of C. difficile, stool samples were prepared by ethanol shock prior to plating onto a selective medium which contained blood, cefoxitin and fructose. Of the 245 samples, 14 (5.8%) were identified as positive by the cell cytotoxicity assay. Using the criteria of isolation of cytotoxigenic C. difficile positivity increased to 6.5% (16 samples). Thirteen of the positive results were from hospitalized patients (81.3%) and 3 (18.7%) from outpatients. The mean age of inpatients was 72.9 years (ranging from 47 to 88). All patients had received 2 or more antimicrobial agents (most of them beta-lactams) 2 months before the appearance of diarrhea. There was one patient who had received only chemotherapy. The prevalence of CDAD in this study was less than in others previously reported. This difference may be due to the fact that not all general practitioners include testing for C. difficile when the patient with diarrhea had previously received antibiotics. More educational programs should be directed to all physicians, concerning the role of C. difficile as an important enteric pathogen in patients who have undergone treatment with antimicrobial or chemotherapeutic agents.

Diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile: frecuencia de detección en un centro médico de Buenos Aires, Argentina / Clostridium difficile diarrhea: frequency of detection in a medical center in Buenos Aires, Argentina

Clostridium difficile has been recognized as the most important enteric pathogen of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in adults from industrialized countries. The importance of C. difficile as a cause of diarrhea in ambulatory patients appears underestimated or under-recognized. Since the 1980s, outbreaks of CDAD have been increasingly reported, but there are few data available in Argentina. We developed a retrospective study to provide some information about CDAD in our country. From July 1998 to November 1999, a total of 245 fecal specimens from hospitalized and some ambulatory patients were tested in order to confirm the diagnosis of CDAD. C. difficile cytotoxin (toxin B) was identified by detecting its cytopathic effect on monolayers of McCoy culture cells. For culture and isolation of C. difficile, stool samples were prepared by ethanol shock prior to plating onto a selective medium which contained blood, cefoxitin and fructose. Of the 245 samples, 14 (5.8) were identified as positive by the cell cytotoxicity assay. Using the criteria of isolation of cytotoxigenic C. difficile positivity increased to 6.5 (16 samples). Thirteen of the positive results were from hospitalized patients (81.3) and 3 (18.7) from outpatients. The mean age of inpatients was 72.9 years (ranging from 47 to 88). All patients had received 2 or more antimicrobial agents (most of them beta-lactams) 2 months before the appearance of diarrhea. There was one patient who had received only chemotherapy. The prevalence of CDAD in this study was less than in others previously reported. This difference may be due to the fact that not all general practitioners include testing for C. difficile when the patient with diarrhea had previously received antibiotics. More educational programs should be directed to all physicians, concerning the role of C. difficile as an important enteric pathogen in patients who have undergone treatment with antimicrobial or chemotherapeutic agents.(AU)

Diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile: frecuencia de detección en un centro médico de Buenos Aires, Argentina / Clostridium difficile diarrhea: frequency of detection in a medical center in Buenos Aires, Argentina

Clostridium difficile has been recognized as the most important enteric pathogen of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in adults from industrialized countries. The importance of C. difficile as a cause of diarrhea in ambulatory patients appears underestimated or under-recognized. Since the 1980's, outbreaks of CDAD have been increasingly reported, but there are few data available in Argentina. We developed a retrospective study to provide some information about CDAD in our country. From July 1998 to November 1999, a total of 245 fecal specimens from hospitalized and some ambulatory patients were tested in order to confirm the diagnosis of CDAD. C. difficile cytotoxin (toxin B) was identified by detecting its cytopathic effect on monolayers of McCoy culture cells. For culture and isolation of C. difficile, stool samples were prepared by ethanol shock prior to plating onto a selective medium which contained blood, cefoxitin and fructose. Of the 245 samples, 14 (5.8) were identified as positive by the cell cytotoxicity assay. Using the criteria of isolation of cytotoxigenic C. difficile positivity increased to 6.5 (16 samples). Thirteen of the positive results were from hospitalized patients (81.3) and 3 (18.7) from outpatients. The mean age of inpatients was 72.9 years (ranging from 47 to 88). All patients had received 2 or more antimicrobial agents (most of them beta-lactams) 2 months before the appearance of diarrhea. There was one patient who had received only chemotherapy. The prevalence of CDAD in this study was less than in others previously reported. This difference may be due to the fact that not all general practitioners include testing for C. difficile when the patient with diarrhea had previously received antibiotics. More educational programs should be directed to all physicians, concerning the role of C. difficile as an important enteric pathogen in patients who have undergone treatment with antimicrobial or chemotherapeutic agents.

Vaginal microflora associated with bacterial vaginosis in nonpregnant women: reliability of sialidase detection.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of Gardnerella vaginalis, anaerobic bacteria and Mycoplasma hominis in vaginal specimens of women with and without bacterial vaginosis (BV) as well as to determine the sensitivity and specificity of the direct sialidase assay of vaginal fluid as a rapid test for diagnosing this syndrome. METHODS: Vaginal cultures were obtained from 109 nonpregnant women (mean age 33 +/- 7.1 years), 47 of them with clinical signs of BV (BV+) and 62 of them without BV (BV-). In addition, we determined the vaginal sialidase activity in both groups, which may serve as a feature of this syndrome. RESULTS: Anaerobic bacteria were isolated in 91% and 18% of the BV+ and BV- groups, respectively (p < 0.001). Peptostreptococcus spp., Prevotella bivia and Porphyromonas spp. were strongly associated with BV. P. bivia and Prevotella spp. represented 44% of all the anaerobes isolated in the BV+ group. All the isolated P. bivia strains presented sialidase activity. G. vaginalis and M. hominis were isolated in 76% and 42% of the BV+ and 1% and 0% of the BV- women, respectively (p < 0.001). Mobiluncus morphotypes were observed in 34% of the BV+ and 0% of BV- women. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of sialidase activity were 81%, 94%, 90% and 86%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate a strong association between G. vaginalis, M. hominis, and P. bivia and BV. Sialidase activity and Gram stain of vaginal fluid represent accurate methods for diagnosing BV.