To meet grand challenges, agricultural scientists must engage in the politics of constructive collective action.

Agriculture now faces grand challenges, with crucial implications for the global future. These include the need to increase production of nutrient-dense food, to improve agriculture's effects on soil, water, wildlife, and climate, and to enhance equity and justice in food and agricultural systems. We argue that certain politics of constructive collective action-and integral involvement of agricultural scientists in these politics-are essential for meeting grand challenges and other complex problems facing agriculture in the 21st century. To spur reflection and deliberation about the role of politics in the work of agricultural scientists, we outline these politics of constructive collective action. These serve to organize forceful responses to grand challenges through coordinated and cooperative action taken by multiple sectors of society. In essence, these politics entail (1) building bonds of affinity within a heterogenous network, (2) developing a shared roadmap for collective action, and (3) taking sustained action together. These emerging politics differ markedly from more commonly discussed forms of political activity by scientists, e.g., policy advisory, policy advocacy, and protest. We present key premises for our thesis, and then describe and discuss a politics of constructive collective action, the necessary roles of agricultural scientists, and an agenda for exploring and expanding their engagement in these politics.

Improving nitrogen efficiency: lessons from Malawi and Michigan.

Two case studies are presented here of nitrogen (N) dynamics in potato/maize systems. Contrasting systems were investigated from (1) the highland tropics of Dedza, Malawi in southern Africa and (2) the northern temperate Great Lakes region of Michigan. Formal surveys were conducted to document grower perceptions and N management strategies. Survey data were linked with N budgets conducted by reviewing on-farm data from representative farms in the targeted agroecosystems and simulation modeling to estimate N losses. Potential N-loss junctures were identified. Interventions that farmers might accept are discussed. The Malawi system uses targeted application of very small amounts of fertilizer (average 18 kg N ha(-1)) to growing plants. This low rate is on the steep part of plant response to N curve and should serve to enhance efficiency; plant growth, however, is generally stunted in Malawi due to degraded soils and weed competition. Very limited crop yields reduce N efficiency from a simulated 60 kg grain per kg N to an actual of approximately 20 kg grain per kg N (at 40 kg N ha(-1) applied). Legume-intensified systems could improve growth potential and restore N use efficiency through amelioration of soil quality and transfer functions and from biological fixation N inputs. In the Michigan system, N efficiency is enhanced currently through multiple, split applications of N fertilizer tailored to plant growth rate and demand. Fertilizer N rates used by growers, however, averaged 32% higher than recommended rates and 40% higher than N removed in crop product. Application of 50 kg N ha(-1) to cover crops in the fall may contribute to the apparent high potential for N leaching losses. Careful consideration of N credits from legumes and residual soil N would improve N efficiency. Overall, N budgets indicated 0 to 20 kg N ha(-1) loss potential from the Malawi systems and tenfold higher loss potential from current practice in Michigan maize/potato rotations. Best management practices, with or without integration of legumes, could potentially reduce N losses in Michigan to a more acceptable level of about 40 kg N ha(-1).

Effect of phosphorus deficiency on growth angle of basal roots in Phaseolus vulgaris.

Root architectural plasticity might be an important factor in the acquisition by plants of immobile nutrients such as phosphorus (P). In this study, we examined the effect of P availability on the orientation of basal roots with respect to gravity, and thereby on the growth angle of these roots of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). In one set of studies the growth angle of basal roots of bean seedlings was measured over time. Sixteen bean genotypes were examined; six showed a decrease in root orientation with respect to gravity in low P media, one increased orientation, and nine showed no difference within 5 d of basal root emergence. Bean taproots also showed decreased root orientation with respect to gravity in low P. Growth angle after 5 d was correlated with field performance of contrasting genotypes in low P tropical soils. Mineral deficiencies other than P did not cause changes in root angle. In a split pouch system that provided high or low P solution to different parts of the root system, the decrease in root angle in low P was found to be a response to global P availability, and not local to the portion of the root system in low P. Effects of P availability on root angle were associated with reduced shoot P concentration, but preceded effects on plant biomass accumulation and leaf area expansion. Results from growth pouches for genotype G 19833 were confirmed using a solid-phase buffered sand-culture system supplying P at three levels. Pea (Pisum sativum), soybean (Glycine max Williams), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), and lentil (Lens culinaris) were grown with and without P; soybean and pea also showed decreased basal root angles in low P.

Effects of salinity on severity of infection by Phytophthora parasitica Dast., ion concentrations and growth of tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

The response of tomato (Lycopersictm esculentum Mill., cv. UC82B) to salinity, alone and in combination with Phytophthora parasitica Dast. (a fungal pathogen causing root rot) was investigated in a field study. Three salinity regimes were established: 1) a low salinity control, 2 medium salinity, where 75 mm total salts (NaCl and CaCU in a 4:1 molar ratio of Na:Ca) were added to the irrigation water to give an electrical conductivity (EC) of approximately 8 dS m-1 , and 3) high salinity, where ISO mM total salts (4:1 molar ratio of Na: Ca) gave an EC of approximately 16 dS m-1 . Half of the plots were inoculated with P. parasitica. and the remainder were treated with a selective fungicide to inhibit the pathogen. Soil salinity markedly increased the incidence of Phytophthora root rot in both years of the study. The combination of salinity and enhanced disease severity led to significant reductions in fresh fruit yields, fruit size and, to a lesser extent, total above ground biomass. Fruit size was affected to the greatest extent and showed a strong interaction between the effects of disease and salinity, suggesting that the import of water by fruit was more sensitive than dry matter production to the combination of these stresses. Net root growth (0-50 cm depth) was greatly reduced (by 40-50%) in the presence of salinity, whereas P. parasitica had no discernable effect even when more than 50% of the root system showed severe root rot lesions. In spite of the reduced root system, leaf water potential was not affected by disease in the 1989 growing season. During the fruit-fill period in 1988, however, leaf water potential was more negative in inoculated plots. A marked degree of leaf ion homeostasis was maintained even under high salt and root rot stress. Excessive build up of Cl or Na concentrations in the leaves did not contribute substantially to the observed reductions in plant growth and yield. The results suggest that a reduced root growth rate or an enhanced root death rate may be at least partially responsible for the increased disease severity at high salinity.

Asparagine Biosynthesis in Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) Root Nodules.

Rapid direct conversion of exogenously supplied [(14)C]aspartate to [(14)C] asparagine and to tricarboxylic cycle acids was observed in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) nodules. Aspartate aminotransferase activity readily converted carbon from exogenously applied [(14)C]aspartate into the tricarboxylic acid cycle with subsequent conversion to the organic acids malate, succinate, and fumarate. Aminooxyacetate, an inhibitor of aminotransferase activity, reduced the flow of carbon from [(14)C]aspartate into tricarboxylic cycle acids and decreased (14)CO(2) evolution by 99%. Concurrently, maximum conversion of aspartate to asparagine was observed in aminooxyacetate treated nodules (30 nanomoles asparagine per gram fresh weight per hour. Metabolism of [(14)C]aspartate and distribution of nodulefixed (14)CO(2) suggest that two pools of aspartate occur in alfalfa nodules: (a) one involved in asparagine biosynthesis, and (b) another supplying a malate/aspartate shuttle. Conversion of [(14)C]aspartate to [(14)C]asparagine was not inhibited by methionine sulfoximine, a glutamine synthetase inhibitor, or azaserine, a glutmate synthetase, inhibitor. The data did not indicate that asparagine biosynthesis in alfalfa nodules has an absolute requirement for glutamine. Radioactivity in the xylem sap, derived from nodule (14)CO(2) fixation, was markedly decreased by treating nodulated roots with aminooxyacetate, methionine sulfoximine, and azaserine. Inhibitors decreased the [(14)C]aspartate and [(14)]asparagine content of xylem sap by greater than 80% and reduced the total amino nitrogen content of xylem sap (including nonradiolabeled amino acids) by 50 to 80%. Asparagine biosynthesis in alfalfa nodules and transport in xylem sap are dependent upon continued aminotransferase activity and an uninterrupted assimilation of ammonia via the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase pathway. Continued assimilation of ammonia apparently appears crucial to continued root nodule CO(2) fixation in alfalfa.

Comparison of clinical effects and pharmacokinetics of once-daily Uniphyl and twice-daily Theo-Dur in asthmatic patients.

A pharmacokinetic study using theophylline syrup in adult asthmatic patients demonstrated a mean apparent volume of distribution of 0.38 liters/kg, mean elimination rate constant of 0.10 hours-1, and variable rates of clearance of theophylline (total body clearance of 0.38 to 0.96 ml/kg per minute). Subsequently, the asthmatic patients were compared using a cross-over design after maintenance Uniphyl (once daily at 8 a.m. or at 8 p.m.) and Theo-Dur (twice daily at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m.). Total daily maintenance theophylline dosage, calculated from the pharmacokinetic data, was identical in all three cross-over phases. At the end of each phase, plasma theophylline levels were measured every two hours and spirometric determinations were made every four hours (excluding 4 a.m.) for 24 hours. The following results were observed: highest peak and mean plasma theophylline concentration and area under the concentration-time curves with evening Uniphyl (p less than 0.05); prolonged time-to-peak theophylline concentration after nocturnal compared with daytime dosing; diurnal variation in pulmonary function and plasma theophylline concentrations; no significant differences between the three maintenance treatments in asthmatic symptoms or spirometric results.