ABSTRACT
(1) Background: Obesity, a complex metabolic disease resulting from an imbalance between food consumption and energy expenditure, leads to an increase in adipocytes and chronic inflammatory conditions. The aim of this paper was to synthesize a small series of carvacrol derivatives (CD1-3) that are able to reduce both adipogenesis and the inflammatory status often associated with the progression of the obesity disease. (2) Methods: The synthesis of CD1-3 was performed using classical procedures in a solution phase. Biological studies were performed on three cell lines: 3T3-L1, WJ-MSCs, and THP-1. The anti-adipogenic properties of CD1-3 were evaluated using western blotting and densitometric analysis by assessing the expression of obesity-related proteins, such as ChREBP. The anti-inflammatory effect was estimated by measuring the reduction in TNF-α expression in CD1-3-treated THP-1 cells. (3) Results: CD1-3-obtained through a direct linkage between the carboxylic moiety of anti-inflammatory drugs (Ibuprofen, Flurbiprofen, and Naproxen) and the hydroxyl group of carvacrol-have an inhibitory effect on the accumulation of lipids in both 3T3-L1 and WJ-MSCs cell cultures and an anti-inflammatory effect by reducing TNF- α levels in THP-1 cells. (4) Conclusions: Considering the physicochemical properties, stability, and biological data, the CD3 derivative-obtained by a direct linkage between carvacrol and naproxen-resulted in the best candidate, displaying anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro.
ABSTRACT
Fibrosis is a chronic and progressive disorder characterized by excessive deposition of extracellular matrix, which leads to scarring and loss of function of the affected organ or tissue. Indeed, the fibrotic process affects a variety of organs and tissues, with specific molecular background. However, two common hallmarks are shared: the crucial role of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) and the involvement of the inflammation process, that is essential for initiating the fibrotic degeneration. TGF-ß in particular but also other cytokines regulate the most common molecular mechanism at the basis of fibrosis, the Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT). EMT has been extensively studied, but not yet fully explored as a possible therapeutic target for fibrosis. A deeper understanding of the crosstalk between fibrosis and EMT may represent an opportunity for the development of a broadly effective anti-fibrotic therapy. Here we report the evidences of the relationship between EMT and multi-organ fibrosis, and the possible therapeutic approaches that may be developed by exploiting this relationship.
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: Obesity is the result of white adipose tissue accumulation where excess of food energy is stored to form triglycerides. De novo lipogenesis (DNL) is the continuous process of new fat production and is driven by the transcription factor ChREBP. During adipogenesis, white adipocytes change their morphology and the entire cell volume is occupied by one large lipid droplet. Recent studies have implicated an essential role of autophagy in adipogenic differentiation, cytoplasmic remodelling and mitochondria reorganization. The phenolic monoterpenoid carvacrol (2-methyl-5-[1-methylethyl]phenol), produced by numerous aromatic plants, has been shown to reduce lipid accumulation in murine 3T3-L1 cells during adipogenic differentiation by modulating genes associated with adipogenesis and inflammation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate whether carvacrol could affect autophagy and ChREBP expression during adipogenic differentiation. METHODS: The study was carried on by using the murine 3T3-L1 and the human WJ-MSCs (Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells) cell lines. Cells undergoing adipogenic differentiation were untreated or treated with carvacrol. Adipogenic differentiation was assessed by analyzing cellular lipid accumulation with Oil-Red O staining and by ultrastructural examination with TEM. Autophagy was evaluated by western immunoblotting of autophagy markers LC3B and p62/SQSTM and by ultrastructural examination of autophagic bodies. Autophagic flux was evaluated by using autophagy inhibitor cloroquine (CQ). ChREBP expression levels was assessed by both western blotting and immunoelectron microscopy and ChREBP activity by analysis of adipogenic target genes expression. RESULTS: We found that carvacrol reduced adipogenic differentiation of about 40% and 30% in, respectively, 3T3-L1 and in WJ-MSCs cells. The effect of carvacrol on adipogenic differentiation correlated with both reduction of autophagy and reduction of ChREBP expression. CONCLUSION: The results support the notion that carvacrol, through its effect on autophagy (essential for adipocyte maturation) and on ChREBP activity, could be used as a valuable adjuvant to reduce adipogenic differentiation.
