To move or not to move while on campus: Examining the influence of others.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of dynamic and trending descriptive norms on increasing physical activity and decreasing the sedentary behaviors of university students while on campus. PARTICIPANTS: One-hundred fifty-six university students from a Canadian university completed this study. METHODS: Participants were randomly assigned to receive one of four online messages containing normative information about the on-campus behavior of university students. On-campus physical activity and sedentary behavior were measured pre- and post-message. RESULTS: The results revealed that students exposed to the trending norm reported a greater decrease in sedentary behavior than students in the control condition, p = .007. CONCLUSION: Results provide preliminary experimental evidence that trending norm messages may serve to decrease the sedentary behavior of students while on campus.

Haptic input and balance control: An exploratory study examining normative messaging.

This study examined the effect of descriptive norm messaging information on the relationship between haptic input and balance control. Participants were randomly assigned to either a message group where they balanced with haptic input after receiving a descriptive norm message about the positive effect of haptic input or a control group. Findings from an analysis of covariance revealed a significant difference between the two groups. Those in the descriptive norm message group had better balance control than those in the control group. These findings suggest that efforts designed to improve balance control through haptic input may be enhanced through normative messaging.

The Relationship Between Self-Regulatory Efficacy and Physical Activity in Adolescents With a Caveat: A Cross-Lag Design Examining Weather.

PURPOSE: The use of self-efficacy to predict physical activity has a long history. However, this relationship is complex, as self-efficacy is thought to influence and be influenced by physical activity. The directionality of the self-regulatory efficacy (SRE) and physical activity relationship was examined using a cross-lagged design. A secondary purpose was to examine these relationships across differing weather conditions. METHODS: Canadian adolescents (N = 337; aged between 13 and 18 years) completed the physical activity and SRE measures 4 times during a school year. Structural equation modeling was used to perform a cross-lag analysis. RESULTS: The relationships between physical activity and SRE appeared to be weather dependent. During a more challenging weather period (eg, cold weather), the relationship between physical activity and SRE was bidirectional. However, no relationship emerged when the 2 constructs were assessed during a more optimal weather period (eg, warm weather). CONCLUSIONS: Some support has been provided for the bidirectional nature of the relationship between physical activity and SRE. The relationship appeared to be qualified by climate considerations, suggesting that future research examine how weather may relate not just to physical activity but also to the correlates of physical activity.

An exploratory experimental study examining the short-term effects of a public service announcement on parents' perceptions of the descriptive norm for children's outdoor play: A cautionary tale.

ISSUE ADDRESSED: Public service announcements (PSA) targeting physical activity are not always effective at enacting behaviour change. One factor that may impact message effectiveness is whether the message matches its intent (ie, what norm is being portrayed and received). The current study explored the effects of two PSAs on parents' perceptions of outdoor play. METHODS: Parents (N = 333) completed a pre/postexperimental online survey to examine the acute impact of a PSA on their perception of how often children play outdoors (ie, descriptive norms). Participants provided their descriptive norm perceptions and then were randomised to view one of two PSAs: (a) the Mr. Lonely PSA, which portrayed outdoor activity as not normative, and (b) a control message, which portrayed outdoor activity as the norm (VERB PSA). After viewing their PSA, descriptive norm perceptions were reported again. RESULTS: A two-way mixed ANOVA indicated that participants who viewed the Mr. Lonely PSA (where outdoor play was not normative) perceived that children and youth played outdoors less frequently immediately after watching the PSA compared to before viewing it (P < 0.05). No significant change occurred in the control condition. CONCLUSIONS: PSAs can alter individuals' perceptions of whether they perceive outdoor play as normative among children and youth. SO WHAT?: As individuals align their behaviour with what is typical, PSA developers should be wary of what message is being conveyed. In terms of activity, portraying that outdoor play is not normative may not have the intended outcome.

Effect of Manipulating Descriptive Norms and Positive Outcome Expectations on Physical Activity of University Students During Exams.

This experimental study examined the interaction between messages conveying different levels of descriptive norms and positive outcome expectations on university students' engagement in moderate and vigorous physical activity over an exam period. Using a pre-post design, university students entering a final examination period (N = 74) were randomly assigned to one of four message conditions, receiving a message motivating them to exercise over the exam period. Messages included both a descriptive norm (how many others reported being active during a previous exam period; high vs. low) and a positive outcome expectation (those who exercise during exams report better grades; high vs. low). The results from an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for baseline levels of daily physical activity, revealed a significant interaction. Post hoc analyses indicated that when the descriptive norm was high, those who received a high positive outcome expectation reported being more active during the exam period compared to those receiving the low positive outcome expectation. Results provide preliminary support for the idea that activity during an exam period can be positively influenced if individuals are presented with normative messages that (a) many others are being active during the exams and (b) many of those being active also are benefiting academically.

Perceived success/failure and attributions associated with self-regulatory efficacy to meet physical activity recommendations for women with arthritis.

The relationship between attributional dimensions women assign to the cause of their perceived success or failure at meeting the recommended physical activity dose and self-regulatory efficacy for future physical activity was examined among women with arthritis. Women (N = 117) aged 18-84 years, with self-reported medically-diagnosed arthritis, completed on-line questions in the fall of 2013 assessing endurance physical activity, perceived outcome for meeting the recommended levels of endurance activity, attributions for one's success or failure in meeting the recommendations, and self-regulatory efficacy to schedule/plan endurance activity over the next month. The main theoretically-driven finding revealed that the interaction of the stability dimension with perceived success/failure was significantly related to self-regulatory efficacy for scheduling and planning future physical activity (ß = 0.35, p = .002). Outcomes attributed to more versus less stable factors accentuated differences in self-regulatory efficacy beliefs following perceived success and failure at being active. It appears that attributional dimensions were associated with self-regulatory efficacy in women with arthritis. This suggests that rather than objectively observed past mastery experience, women's subjective perceptions and explanations of their past experiences were related to efficacy beliefs, especially following a failure experience.

Social Provisions and Young Women's Health-Related Physical Activity.

Understanding the factors involved in being active enough for health benefits is necessary to promote health-related physical activity. Given the documented role of social support in women's activity (Molloy et al. 2010), this study examined the relationship between Weiss's (1974) social provisions and health-related physical activity in young women. College undergraduate women (N = 136) from a kinesiology course completed a modified Social Provisions Scale (Cutrona and Russell 1987) and reported on the physical activity they engaged in with others over a 4-week period in the fall of 2011. We used average daily energy expenditure, calculated based on participants' reported activity involvement, to classify participants as either sufficiently or insufficiently active (Canadian Fitness & Lifestyle Research Institute 1999). A logistic regression using sufficient/insufficient activity levels for health as the dependent variable revealed that the six provisions reliably differentiated between those who were active enough for health benefits versus not. Of the six, two provisions were significantly associated with health-related physical activity--specifically, those who held higher perceptions of reassurance of worth and social integration were more likely to be in the sufficiently-active group. These results provide an initial indication of the specific social provisions associated with young women who are active enough to achieve health benefits.

Meeting physical activity recommendations: self-regulatory efficacy characterizes differential adherence during arthritis flares.

PURPOSE: Using social-cognitive theory, we examined whether adults who experienced an arthritis flare and met/did not meet the disease-specific public health recommended dose for physical activity differed in their self-regulatory efficacy beliefs, overall pain, and flare-related factors. RESEARCH METHOD/DESIGN: Adults with arthritis (N = 56; M(age) = 49.41 ± 11.56 years) participated in this prospective study. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis of variance comparing groups who met or did not meet the recommended dose (n(met) = 24, ≥ 150 minutes/week vs. n(not met) = 32, < 150 min/week) on efficacy, overall pain, and flare-related factors was significant (p < .01; η(partial)² = .28). People meeting the dose had significantly greater self-regulatory efficacy to overcome arthritis barriers (M(met dose) = 7.33 ± 1.95 vs. M(did not meet dose) = 5.74 ± 2.08, η(partial)² = .14) and to schedule/plan (M(met dose) = 7.27 ± 1.80 vs. M(did not meet dose) = 5.72 ± 1.90, η(partial)² = .15). Overall pain and flare-related factors did not differ (ps > .05). CONCLUSION/IMPLICATION: During flares, individuals with greater self-regulatory efficacy to manage disease barriers and plan their physical activity were more adherent to disease-specific public health activity recommendations. This study was the first to demonstrate differences in social cognitions that characterize adherence to recommended activity among people challenged by arthritis flares. Findings support the theoretical position that self-regulatory efficacy is related to better adherence in the face of challenging disease-related circumstances. The importance of studying individual characteristics of people who succeed in being active despite such obstacles is stressed.

Exercise identity and attribution properties predict negative self-conscious emotions for exercise relapse.

Research on exercise identity (EXID) indicates that it is related to negative affect when exercisers are inconsistent or relapse. Although identity theory suggests that causal attributions about this inconsistency elicit negative self-conscious emotions of shame and guilt, no EXID studies have examined this for exercise relapse. Weiner's attribution-based theory of interpersonal motivation (2010) offers a means of testing the attribution-emotion link. Using both frameworks, we examined whether EXID and attributional properties predicted negative emotions for exercise relapse. Participants (n = 224) read an exercise relapse vignette, and then completed EXID, attributions, and emotion measures. Hierarchical multiple regression models using EXID and the attributional property of controllability significantly predicted each of shame and guilt, R² adjusted = .09, ps ≤ .001. Results support identity theory suggestions and Weiner's specific attribution-emotion hypothesis. This first demonstration of an interlinking of EXID, controllability, and negative self-conscious emotions offers more predictive utility using complementary theories than either theory alone.

Social influence and adolescent health-related physical activity in structured and unstructured settings: role of channel and type.

BACKGROUND: Social influence channels (e.g., parents) and types (e.g., compliance) have each been related to physical activity independently, but little is known about how these two categories of influence may operate in combination. PURPOSE: This study examined the relationships between various combinations of social influence and physical activity among youth across structured and unstructured settings. METHODS: Adolescents (N=304), classified as high or low active, reported the social influence combinations they received for being active. RESULTS: Participants identified three channels and three types of influence associated with being active. For structured activity, compliance with peers and significant others predicted membership in the high active group (values of p< .001). In the unstructured setting, peer compliance (p= .009) and conformity (p= .019) were associated with active group membership. CONCLUSIONS: These findings reinforce considering both setting, as well as the channel/type combinations of social influence, when examining health-related physical activity.

Theory of planned behavior and intention to exercise: effects of setting.

OBJECTIVES: To explore whether setting type (structured versus unstructured) might moderate the relationship between specific theory of planned behavior (TPB) constructs and exercise intention. It was hypothesized that perceived behavioral control (PBC) would predict intention only in an unstructured setting. METHODS: Students (N=122) completed a questionnaire that assessed TPB constructs and exercise intention for a structured (sign up) or unstructured setting (no sign up). RESULTS: Simple slopes analysis of the significant interaction revealed PBC was a predictor of intention only in the unstructured setting. CONCLUSIONS: This provides support for the suggestion that the effect of PBC on exercise intention would be moderated by setting.

Using messages promoting descriptive norms to increase physical activity.

While it has been known for some time that what others do (i.e., normative behavior) can influence individual behavior, the effect of normative social influence on physical activity behavior has not been well established. The purpose of this study was to examine whether exposure to messages containing descriptive norm information about the prevalence of others' physical activity would affect individual physical activity behavior to a greater extent than exposure to nonnormative messages. Two independent studies were conducted. The first manipulated normative and nonnormative messages to examine effects on physical activity in office workers. Participants were assigned to one of four conditions (descriptive norm, health, appearance, or control) and received e-mail messages specific to their condition encouraging them to be active. It was hypothesized that participants in the descriptive norm condition would experience the greatest increase in physical activity, and the results supported this hypothesis for mild activity. A second study attempted to extend these results by examining the effect of descriptive norms on the activity behavior of university students, but no relationship was found. Typical activity levels and group identity with the reference group were suggested as possible explanations for the differing findings in these two studies.

Varying the cause of a challenge to exercise identity behaviour: reactions of individuals of differing identity strength.

Research shows that people with stronger exercise identity (EXID) exhibit greater negative affect and self-regulatory efficacy (SRE) when behaviour is inconsistent with identity. However, related attributions have not been examined. Using social cognitive and identity theories, we examined causes of failing to exercise. In a two (EXID: stronger, weaker) by two (Cause: personally-controllable, situational) design, participants (N = 224) were randomized to Cause and read a condition-relevant no-exercise vignette. MANOVA revealed main effects for Cause and EXID, p's < .001. Participants explaining their Cause differed on attributional dimensions, and stronger EXID participants reported greater negative affect and higher SRE, p's < .001.

Is level of pain acceptance differentially related to social cognitions and behavior? The case of active women with arthritis.

Pain from arthritis is a barrier to physical activity (PA), yet some people still manage to be active. This study examined whether women with greater or weaker arthritis pain acceptance were distinguished by social cognitions (self-regulatory efficacy to overcome barriers; outcome expectations of PA) and whether PA differences existed. Women with arthritis (N = 118) completed two surveys. After controlling for pain, a hierarchical discriminant function analysis discriminated pain acceptance groups in terms of the social cognitions. Greater pain acceptance participants were also significantly more active. Findings contribute new insight on the combination of a disease-related factor (pain acceptance) and social cognitions important for adherence.

Team building and perceived effort in an exercise setting: gender effects.

This study examined the moderating role of gender on the team building (TB)/perceived effort relationship in an exercise setting. Youths (n=100) who participated in either a TB or control group exercise setting completed a measure of perceived effort prior to and following a TB intervention. A 2 (group)×2 (gender) ANCOVA controlling for baseline perceived effort revealed a significant interaction, F (1, 95)=4.50, p<.05. The interaction revealed that females in the TB condition reported significantly more perceived effort at the post-assessment than did those in the control condition whereas the perceived effort reported by males did not differ between conditions. These results provide preliminary evidence that gender may need to be considered in future TB investigations that include perceived effort as a dependent measure.

The relationship of chronic disease and demographic variables to physical activity in a sample of women aged 65 to 79 years.

This study explored the relationship between physical activity, marital status, income, education, and chronic disease in older women to determine which individuals are at risk of being inactive and to identify potential moderators of physical activity behavior. This was an analysis of cross-sectional data from a convenience sample of 271 community-dwelling women aged 65 to 79 years. Self-reported physical activity was measured using the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly. Socio-demographic characteristics (including age, gender, marital status, education, employment, and income) and self-reported health were measured using previously validated instruments. To avoid seasonal variations in physical activity, data were collected during the summer months. Physical activity was negatively associated with age and the presence of cardio-respiratory disease and positively associated with income greater than $20,000 (p < 0.05). After controlling for other co-variates, no significant differences were observed in physical activity between married and unmarried individuals. Given the strong association between cardio-respiratory disease and income with physical activity, women 65 years of age and older in lower income brackets and suffering from these health conditions should be targeted for exercise counseling and support. Intervention research is needed to determine the most effective means to decrease inactivity among these women.

Attributions and self-regulatory efficacy for health-related physical activity.

Two studies were conducted to examine associations among past activity behaviour, attributions and self-regulatory efficacy for maintaining physical activity sufficient for health benefits. The studies differed in that success for being sufficiently active for health benefits was externally referenced in the first study, but not in the second. In both studies, results revealed that attributional dimensions improved the prediction of self-regulatory efficacy beyond that of past physical behaviour. Results suggested that while past experience may influence an individual's self-regulatory efficacy to be active enough for health benefits, how people think about their past behaviour also needs to be considered.

Self-regulatory efficacy as a mediator between attributions and intention for health-related physical activity.

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-regulatory efficacy would mediate the relationship between individual attributional dimensions for typical exercise levels and intentions to maintain these levels during final exams among university students. Using a prospective design, participants completed measures of attributions for typical activity levels, self-regulatory efficacy and intention to be active during a forthcoming exam period. Results revealed that self-regulatory efficacy partially mediated the relationship between attributional dimensions and intentions for both moderate and mild exercise levels. The results provide initial support for the suggestion that when examining moderate and mild intensity exercise, it is plausible that causality flows from stability of attributions to intentions, at least partially through self-regulatory efficacy.

Physician counseling and longer term physical activity.

While physician counseling has been suggested as a strategy to promote physical activity, there is insufficient evidence to support its effectiveness at present. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of brief physician counseling (modified PACE protocol) and telephone follow-ups on changes in the energy expenditure levels of patients over a 20-month period. Forty-five participants completed physical activity questionnaires at both baseline and 20 months. Following brief physician counseling (modified PACE protocol), patients were randomized into a counseling-only group or an enhanced counseling group that included 3 telephone follow-ups. Energy expenditure significantly increased from baseline (1.5 kcal/kg/d [KKD]) to 20 months (2.2 KKD, P < .05) in both groups. Neither the group nor group-by-time interaction was significant (P > .05). In line with the counseling provided by physicians, participants showed an increase in moderate intensity activities and a decrease in light intensity activities (Ps < .001). These findings provide support for the effectiveness of brief physician counseling. However, the additional telephone support did not appear to enhance the physician counseling.

Strength of exercise identity and identity-exercise consistency: affective and social cognitive relationships.

This study examined Identity Theory hypotheses about identity-behaviour consistency. Exercise-identity strength and judgments about consistency were hypothesized to relate to perceptions of percent consistency and frequency of vigorous exercise. Identity strength and percent consistency were hypothesized to interact in their relationship with affective reactions to extent of consistency. Measures of exercise-identity strength, perceived consistency, exercise frequency, self-regulatory efficacy and consistency-related affect were completed by 528 exercisers. Exercise-identity strength and consistency judgments related to percent consistency and exercise frequency. Exercise-identity strength and percent consistency interacted in their relationship with consistency-related affect and also were related to self-regulatory efficacy.