Millennia of legal content criteria of lies and truths: wisdom or common-sense folly?

Long before experimental psychology, religious writers, orators, and playwrights described examples of lie detection based on the verbal content of statements. Legal scholars collected evidence from individual cases and systematized them as "rules of evidence". Some of these resemble content cues used in contemporary research, while others point to working hypotheses worth exploring. To examine their potential validity, we re-analyzed data from a quasi-experimental study of 95 perjury cases. The outcomes support the fruitfulness of this approach. Travelling back in time searching for testable ideas about content cues to truth and deception may be worthwhile.

Mock jurors' awareness of age-related changes in memory and cognitive capacity.

While age-related changes in memory have been well documented, findings about jurors' perceptions of older witnesses are conflicting. We investigated the effect of victim age (25 vs. 75 years old) and crime severity (victim injured vs. not injured) on mock jurors' decisions in a robbery trial. Jury-eligible participants (120 women; 84 men) read a mock trial summary and delivered their verdicts online. Mock jurors believed the young victim more than the older victim when the crime was severe, while no age differences emerged for the less severe crime. Whereas previous research demonstrated that juror characteristics were generally associated with culpability, we demonstrated that with case-specific information, these general views became less important. In all, mock jurors were aware of age-related decline in memory provided by eyewitnesses only to a limited extent. Accordingly, in trials involving older witnesses, jurors will benefit from educative information about age-related memory changes.

Memory for faces in old age: A meta-analysis.

The present meta-analysis investigated the influence of age on face recognition. A total of 19 studies with 79 comparisons of younger and older participants were included. Analyses revealed small to moderate effects for hits, and large effects for false alarms and signal detection theory (SDT) measures. Younger participants outperformed older participants on most face recognition measures. Younger participants made more hits (gu = 0.31) and fewer false alarms (gu = 0.95) and thus had better SDT recognition performance (gu = 1.01) than older participants. These effects were largest for young faces, smaller for mixed-age faces, and smallest for older faces. Furthermore, older participants used a more liberal response criterion, that is, they were more likely to choose a face than younger participants (gu = 0.54). Meta-regression analyses revealed that young faces (vs. mixed-age faces) and longer retention intervals were associated with greater differences between the age groups for hits but not for false alarms. Funnel plot and trim-and-fill analyses indicated the presence of a publication bias. Theoretical implications for future research and for older people as eyewitnesses are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record

Decision time and confidence predict choosers' identification performance in photographic showups.

In vast contrast to the multitude of lineup studies that report on the link between decision time, confidence, and identification accuracy, only a few studies looked at these associations for showups, with results varying widely across studies. We therefore set out to test the individual and combined value of decision time and post-decision confidence for diagnosing the accuracy of positive showup decisions using confidence-accuracy characteristic curves and Bayesian analyses. Three-hundred-eighty-four participants viewed a stimulus event and were subsequently presented with two showups which could be target-present or target-absent. As expected, we found a negative decision time-accuracy and a positive post-decision confidence-accuracy correlation for showup selections. Confidence-accuracy characteristic curves demonstrated the expected additive effect of combining both postdictors. Likewise, Bayesian analyses, taking into account all possible target-presence base rate values showed that fast and confident identification decisions were more diagnostic than slow or less confident decisions, with the combination of both being most diagnostic for postdicting accurate and inaccurate decisions. The postdictive value of decision time and post-decision confidence was higher when the prior probability that the suspect is the perpetrator was high compared to when the prior probability that the suspect is the perpetrator was low. The frequent use of showups in practice emphasizes the importance of these findings for court proceedings. Overall, these findings support the idea that courts should have most trust in showup identifications that were made fast and confidently, and least in showup identifications that were made slowly and with low confidence.

Discriminating between correct and incorrect eyewitness identifications: The use of appropriate cues.

To explain fact finders' judgment accuracy when evaluating the accuracy of an identification decision we applied the Brunswikian lens model. Guided by this model we examined (a) which cues observers use to evaluate an identification decision and how they interpret them ("subjective utilities"); and (b) if these cues as perceived by observers are indeed related to identification accuracy ("ecological validities"). Ninety-six participant-observers were presented with 48 videotaped positive identification decisions. For half of the participants, a think-aloud method was employed to make discriminating cues more salient to observers; the other half retrospectively provided reasons for their decisions. As expected, discriminating cues were visible only when think-aloud protocols were used. However, observers' use of these cues as indicators of identification accuracy was independent of type of decision protocol. Thus, only in the think-aloud condition was a high correspondence between subjective utilities and ecological validities observed. Advantages of think-aloud methods and videotapes to increase fact finders' judgment accuracy when evaluating identification decisions are discussed. Additional data from a follow-up experiment replicating these findings with transcripts are presented in online supplementary material. (PsycINFO Database Record

Deception and Cognitive Load: Expanding Our Horizon with a Working Memory Model.

Recently, studies on deception and its detection have increased dramatically. Many of these studies rely on the "cognitive load approach" as the sole explanatory principle to understand deception. These studies have been exclusively on lies about negative actions (usually lies of suspects of [mock] crimes). Instead, we need to re-focus more generally on the cognitive processes involved in generating both lies and truths, not just on manipulations of cognitive load. Using Baddeley's (2000, 2007, 2012) working memory model, which integrates verbal and visual processes in working memory with retrieval from long-term memory and control of action, not only verbal content cues but also nonverbal, paraverbal, and linguistic cues can be investigated within a single framework. The proposed model considers long-term semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory and their connections with working memory and action. It also incorporates ironic processes of mental control (Wegner, 1994, 2009), the role of scripts and schemata and retrieval cues and retrieval processes. Specific predictions of the model are outlined and support from selective studies is presented. The model is applicable to different types of reports, particularly about lies and truths about complex events, and to different modes of production (oral, hand-written, typed). Predictions regarding several moderator variables and methods to investigate them are proposed.

The verbal facilitation effect: re-reading person descriptions as a system variable to improve identification performance.

When witnesses report a crime, police usually ask for a description of the perpetrator. Several studies suggested that verbalising faces leads to a detriment in identification performance (verbal overshadowing effect [VOE]) but the effect has been difficult to replicate. Here, we sought to reverse the VOE by inducing context reinstatement as a system variable through re-reading one's own description before an identification task. Participants (N = 208) watched a video film and were then dismissed (control group), only described the perpetrator, or described and later re-read their own descriptions before identification in either target-present or target-absent lineups after a 2-day or a 5-week delay. Identification accuracy was significantly higher after re-reading (85.0%) than in the no description control group (62.5%) irrespective of target presence. Data were internally replicated using a second target and corroborated by several small meta-analyses. Identification accuracy was related to description quality. Moreover, there was a tendency towards a verbal facilitation effect (VFE) rather than a VOE. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses confirm that our findings are not due to a shift in response bias but truly reflect improvement of recognition performance. Differences in the ecological validity of study paradigms are discussed.

Are computers effective lie detectors? A meta-analysis of linguistic cues to deception.

This meta-analysis investigates linguistic cues to deception and whether these cues can be detected with computer programs. We integrated operational definitions for 79 cues from 44 studies where software had been used to identify linguistic deception cues. These cues were allocated to six research questions. As expected, the meta-analyses demonstrated that, relative to truth-tellers, liars experienced greater cognitive load, expressed more negative emotions, distanced themselves more from events, expressed fewer sensory-perceptual words, and referred less often to cognitive processes. However, liars were not more uncertain than truth-tellers. These effects were moderated by event type, involvement, emotional valence, intensity of interaction, motivation, and other moderators. Although the overall effect size was small, theory-driven predictions for certain cues received support. These findings not only further our knowledge about the usefulness of linguistic cues to detect deception with computers in applied settings but also elucidate the relationship between language and deception.

Guidance to detect deception with the Aberdeen Report Judgment Scales: are verbal content cues useful to detect false accusations?

In 2 studies we evaluated the efficiency of training raters with a short version of the Aberdeen Report Judgment Scales (ARJS-STV-S) in assessing the truthfulness of transcribed accounts. Participants told both truthful and deceptive accounts of either illegal or immoral actions. In the truthful accounts, the participants described their own misdeeds honestly (true confessions). In the deceptive accounts, the participants also described their own misdeeds but attributed them to someone else (false accusations). In Study 1, guided (n = 32) and unguided (n = 32) raters evaluated 64 transcribed accounts (16 per rater). Only a few ARJS-STV-S criteria differed significantly between false and true accounts. In Study 2 (N = 29), guided raters evaluated the same transcripts using only the most promising criteria of Study 1. Judgments in Study 2 were less biased (in terms of signal detection theory), and the classification of deceptive accounts was significantly better compared with a no-guidance control group and the guided group of Study 1. A Brunswikian lens model analysis showed that with the smaller set of cues there is a better correspondence between the ecological validities and the subjective utilities, which may explain the higher accuracy rates. When the criteria have little or no diagnostic value, or when true and false stories are very similar, providing raters with a larger set of truth criteria does not increase accuracy but instead may bias raters toward making truth judgments. Practical implications for content-based training programs are outlined.

The reliability of identification evidence with multiple lineups

This study aimed to establish the diagnostic value of multiple lineup decisions made for portrait, body, and profile lineups, including multiple target/suspect choices, rejections, foil choices, and don’t know answers. A total of 192 participants identified a thief and a victim of theft from independent simultaneous target-present or target-absent 6-person portrait, body and profile lineups after watching one of two stimulus films. As hypothesized, multiple target/suspect choices had incriminating value whereas multiple rejections, foil choices, and don’t know answers had mostly exonerating value. For suspect choices, the combination of all three lineup modes consistently elicited high diagnosticities across targets. Combinations of non-suspect choices (rejections, foil choices, or don’t know answers) were less successful and the different combinations showed less consistency in terms of diagnosticity. It was concluded that the use of multiple lineups, such as different facial poses and different aspects of a person should be particularly beneficial in three situations: if a witness only saw the perpetrator from a pose different than the frontal view normally used for lineups; if one or more witnesses saw the perpetrator from more than one perspective; and if different witnesses saw the perpetrator from different perspectives (AU)

El estudio tuvo como objetivo establecer el valor diagnóstico de decisiones múltiples en ruedas fotográficas de identificación de la cara, cuerpo y de perfil, que implican múltiples elecciones del objetivo/sospechoso; rechazos, elecciones de cebos, y respuestas «no sé». Un total de 192 participantes identificaron a un ladrón y a la víctima de un robo en ruedas independientes y simultáneas de perfil, cuerpo o cara de 6 personas con el objetivo presente o ausente. En consonancia con las hipótesis planteadas, elecciones múltiples del objetivo/sospechoso tenían valor incriminatorio mientras que múltiples rechazos, elecciones de cebos y respuestas no sé, generalmente tenían valor exonerante. En las elecciones del sospechoso, la combinación de los tres formatos de ruedas de identificación dio lugar, de modo consistente, a diagnósticos correctos. Las combinaciones de decisiones de no-sospechosos (rechazos, elecciones de cebos, o respuestas no sé) resultaron menos exitosas, al tiempo que las diferentes combinaciones mostraron una menor consistencia en el diagnóstico. Se concluye que el uso de múltiples ruedas de identificación, tales como diferentes poses faciales y diferentes aspectos de una persona deberían ser particularmente beneficiosos en tres situaciones: si un testigo sólo vio al perpetrador desde una posición diferente a la frontal que es la forma de presentación característica de las ruedas; si uno o más testigos vieron al perpetrador desde más de una perspectiva; y si diferentes testigos vieron al perpetrador desde perspectivas diferentes (AU)

Assessing nonchoosers' eyewitness identification accuracy from photographic showups by using confidence and response times.

While recent research has shown that the accuracy of positive identification decisions can be assessed via confidence and decision times, gauging lineup rejections has been less successful. The current study focused on 2 different aspects which are inherent in lineup rejections. First, we hypothesized that decision times and confidence ratings should be postdictive of identification rejections if they refer to a single lineup member only. Second, we hypothesized that dividing nonchoosers according to the reasons they provided for their decisions can serve as a useful postdictor for nonchoosers' accuracy. To test these assumptions, we used (1) 1-person lineups (showups) in order to obtain confidence and response time measures referring to a single lineup member, and (2) asked nonchoosers about their reasons for making a rejection. Three hundred and eighty-four participants were asked to identify 2 different persons after watching 1 of 2 stimulus films. The results supported our hypotheses. Nonchoosers' postdecision confidence ratings were well-calibrated. Likewise, we successfully established optimum time and confidence boundaries for nonchoosers. Finally, combinations of postdictors increased the number of accurate classifications compared with individual postdictors.

Written vs. spoken eyewitness accounts: does modality of testing matter?

The aim of the current study was to test whether the modality of testing (written vs. spoken) matters when obtaining eyewitness statements. Writing puts higher demands on working memory than speaking because writing is slower, less practiced, and associated with the activation of graphemic representations for spelling words (Kellogg, 2007). Therefore, we hypothesized that witnesses' spoken reports should elicit more details than written ones. Participants (N = 192) watched a staged crime video and then gave a spoken or written description of the course of action and the perpetrator. As expected, spoken crime and perpetrator descriptions contained more details than written ones, although there was no difference in accuracy. However, the most critical (central) crime and perpetrator information was both more extensive and more accurate when witnesses gave spoken descriptions. In addition to cognitive factors, social factors are considered which may drive the effect.

Listening, not watching: situational familiarity and the ability to detect deception.

In 4 experiments, the authors investigated the influence of situational familiarity with the judgmental context on the process of lie detection. They predicted that high familiarity with a situation leads to a more pronounced use of content cues when making judgments of veracity. Therefore, they expected higher classification accuracy of truths and lies under high familiarity. Under low situational familiarity, they expected that people achieve lower accuracy rates because they use more nonverbal cues for their veracity judgments. In all 4 experiments, participants with high situational familiarity achieved higher accuracy rates in classifying both truthful and deceptive messages than participants with low situational familiarity. Moreover, mediational analyses demonstrated that higher classification accuracy in the high-familiarity condition was associated with more use of verbal content cues and less use of nonverbal cues.

Fast and confident: postdicting eyewitness identification accuracy in a field study.

The combined postdictive value of postdecision confidence, decision time, and Remember-Know-Familiar (RKF) judgments as markers of identification accuracy was evaluated with 10 targets and 720 participants. In a pedestrian area, passers-by were asked for directions. Identifications were made from target-absent or target-present lineups. Fast (optimum time boundary at 6 seconds) and confident (optimum confidence boundary at 90%) witnesses were highly accurate, slow and nonconfident witnesses highly inaccurate. Although this combination of postdictors was clearly superior to using either postdictor by itself these combinations refer only to a subsample of choosers. Know answers were associated with higher identification performance than Familiar answers, with no difference between Remember and Know answers. The results of participants' post hoc decision time estimates paralleled those with measured decision times. To explore decision strategies of nonchoosers, three subgroups were formed according to their reasons given for rejecting the lineup. Nonchoosers indicating that the target had simply been absent made faster and more confident decisions than nonchoosers stating lack of confidence or lack of memory. There were no significant differences with regard to identification performance across nonchooser groups.

When a grandiose self-image is threatened: narcissism and self-concept clarity as predictors of negative emotions and aggression following ego-threat.

Two studies examined the relation between narcissism, self-concept clarity, negative emotions, and aggression based on theoretical assumptions proposed by Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996). Narcissism and self-concept clarity were examined as predictors for anger, depression, and verbal aggression following ego-threat, which was operationalized by a bogus performance feedback on an intelligence test. The second study also examined the mediating effects of participants' negative emotions to provide an additional explanation for the aggressive reactions after failure. As expected, narcissism and self-concept clarity were significant predictors of negative emotions and aggression after failure. In accordance with our hypothesis, high narcissists with low self-concept clarity reacted with anger and aggression after failure, whereas less narcissistic individuals with high self-concept clarity showed feelings of depression and no aggression. The results also indicated that aggression was always directed toward the source of the ego-threatening feedback. Additionally, anger and depression could predict the aggressive response after failure but they did not mediate the relation between narcissism, self-concept clarity, performance feedback, and aggression.