Assessment of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Some Selected LGAs in Kaduna State, Northwestern Nigeria.

Access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities is a basic necessity for human livelihood, survival, and well-being. Adequate WASH facilities provision is a critical issue to most developing countries around the world including Nigeria. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding WASH are integral to effective and sustainable WASH facilities provision. This study assessed the level of knowledge, behavior, and practices towards water, sanitation, and hygiene in Kaduna state, Nigeria, with a view to ensuring sustainable WASH facilities intervention in the region. Data collection tools included spot check observation and questionnaire involving 854 participants, selected from five local government areas (LGAs): Chikun, Kajuru, Soba, Kachia, and Zango Kataf. From the results, major drinking water sources were surface waters (52.5%) and unprotected hand dug wells (44.8%); only 46.2% treated their water supply and few (16.6%) used chlorination method. Pit latrine toilets were the major (76.5%) excreta disposal means, and open defecation practices were widespread (41.4%). Level of personal and environmental hygiene understanding was fairly good in all the local government areas, and 65.4% claimed to use water and soap for washing hands after defecation. Incidence of water related diseases is generally low in the area. Despite the commendable findings in the study areas, communities are still at risk due to lack of safe water supply and poor practices of home treatment and excreta disposal. Therefore provision of WASH facilities and WASH education is fundamental for ensuring public health in the study area.

Repellency and larvicidal activities of Azadirachta indica seed oil on Anopheles gambiae in Nigeria.

Despite the recent decline in the global prevalence of malaria, the disease continues to be one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality among pregnant women and under-five children in Nigeria. The adoption of an integrated approach to malaria control including the use of bio-insecticide will further reduce the burden of malaria. This study determined the repellency and bio-insecticidal effects of Azadirachta indica oil on Anopheles gambiae in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study was experimental in design. Oil was extracted from the ground seed kernel of Azadirachta indica plants using N-hexane as a solvent. Larvicidal tests were carried out on 600 third and fourth instar stages of Anopheles gambiae using an aliquot of extracted oil emulsified with a surfactant (Tween 80) at concentrations ranging from 100 to 500 ppm. Mortality was recorded every 24 h for five days. Repellency tests were carried out by exposing Guinea pigs that were previously treated with the oil mixed with paraffin at 10-40%v/v concentrations, to 70 adult female Anopheles gambiae in netted cages. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA. The oil yield accounted for 40.0% weight of the ground seed kernel. The larvicidal effect was significant across the concentration of the emulsified Azadirachta oil ranging from 91.6-100.0%, compared to the control experiment ranging from 5-15% (LC50 and LC90: -1666.86 ppm and -2880.94 ppm respectively). A 100.0% larval mortality of Anopheles gambiae was recorded within three days at 500 ppm. All the concentrations of the oil solution also caused 100% inhibition of pupae formation. The repellent effect of adult Anopheles was significant (p < 0.05) across the concentrations but with varying degrees of protection. The highest repellent effect was observed at 40.0% (v/v). The possibility of using Azadirachta indica as bio-insecticide against Anopheles gambiae was established in this study.

Improving knowledge and practices of mitigating green house gas emission through waste recycling in a community, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Throughout the world, waste sector has been implicated in significant contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Involving communities in recycling their solid waste would ensure climate change effect mitigation and resilience. This study was carried out to improve waste management practices through a community-led intervention at Kube-Atenda community in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study adopted a quasi-experimental design, comprising mixed method of data collection such as semi- structured questionnaire and a life-cycle-based model for calculating greenhouse gas generation potentials of various waste management practices in the area. A systematic random sampling was used to select sixty (60) households for a survey on knowledge, attitude and practices of waste management through Recovery, Reduction, Reuse and Recycling (4Rs) before and after the training intervention. Data collected were summarised using descriptive statistics, chi-square test, t-test and ANOVA at p = 0.05. The mean age of the respondent was 49.7 ±â€¯16.7 and 68.3% were females. Respondents' knowledge scores before and after the intervention were significantly different: 7.07 ±â€¯1.48 and 11.6 ±â€¯1.6 while attitude scores were: 8.2 ±â€¯2.3 and 13.5 ±â€¯0.8. There were significant differences in the major waste disposal practices in the community before and after the intervention. All (100%) the participants were willing to participate in waste recycling business and the model predicted that adoption of 4Rs strategy had a great potential in saving greenhouse gas emissions in the community. The behaviour of the community people has changed towards waste management that promote climate change mitigation and adaptation through waste reduction, reuse, and resource recovery.

Outdoor air particle-bound trace metals in four selected communities in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Trace metal concentrations were determined in particulate matter (PM10) in ambient air of four purposively selected residential areas in Ibadan, Nigeria namely Bodija market (BM), Ojo Park (OP), Oluyole Estate (OE) and University of Ibadan (UI). PM10 was determined in the morning (7-10 a.m.) and afternoon (2-5 p.m.) for 12 weeks in the dry season months of January-March using a volumetric sampler following standard procedures and levels compared with WHO guideline limits. Glass-fibre filter papers exposed to the particulate matter were digested using appropriate acid mixtures, and the digest analysed for trace metals including Ni, Cr, Mn, Zn, and Pb using ICPMS method and levels compared with WHO limits. Data was analysed using ANOVA and Pearson correlation test at 5 % level of significance. The highest mean PM10 concentrations 502.3 ± 39.9 µg/m(3) were recorded in the afternoon period at BM, while the lowest concentration 220.6 ± 69.9 µg/m(3) was observed in the morning hours at UI. There was a significant difference between the PM10 levels across the various locations (p < 0.05), and all the levels were higher than WHO limit of 50 µg/m(3). The highest levels of Ni, Zn and Pb were recorded at BM, which also had the highest PM10 burden. The trend in Pb levels across the locations was BM > UI > OP > OE with the highest level 5.70 µg/m(3) in BM nearly fourfolds WHO limits of 1.5 µg/m(3). There was a significant correlation between PM10 and Ni (p < 0.05).Urban communities with increased human activities especially motor traffic recorded both higher levels of PM10 and toxic trace metals. There is need to carry out source apportionment to establish the origin of these trace metals in future studies.

Outdoor respirable particulate matter and the lung function status of residents of selected communities in Ibadan, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Ambient air pollution remains a major public health hazard in urban communities. In Nigeria, air quality management especially in the urban centres, is fraught with enormous challenges including limited data. We assessed the outdoor respirable particulate matter (PM10) concentration and the pulmonary function status of residents in four selected communities in Ibadan. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was employed. Four locations - Ojoo Park (OP = high traffic area), Bodija Market (BM = commercial area), Oluyole Estate (OE = industrial area) and the University of Ibadan (UI = academic community - reference) - were selected based on varying intensities of urban activity. PM10 levels were recorded in the morning and afternoon for 12 weeks between January and March 2008. Lung function status (FEV1) of 140 randomly selected participants was measured. Daily mean of PM10 levels were compared with WHO guideline limits. Data analysis was done using descriptive, χ(2), ANOVA and Spearman-rank correlation tests at 5% level of significance. RESULTS: For all sites, PM10 concentration was generally higher in the afternoon. The highest daily mean PM10 concentration was recorded at BM, followed by OP, OE and UI. These values when compared with WHO guideline limits showed: BM eightfold > OP sevenfold > OE sixfold > UI fivefold (p < .05). Weekly mean PM10 levels and mean FEV1(obs) gave the following order: UI > OE > OP > BM. There was a significant negative correlation between PM10 burden and FEV1(obs) across the study locations (r =-0.371, p < .05). CONCLUSION: Most of the locations with higher particulate burden were observed to have declining lung function status. A longitudinal study to establish more robust associations is advocated.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon burden in ambient air in selected Niger Delta communities in Nigeria.

The Niger Delta area in Nigeria has major oil producing and refining centers that characterized enormous industrial activities, especially in the petroleum sector. These industrial processes release different kinds of atmospheric pollutants, of which there is paucity of information on their levels and health implications. The objective of this study was to determine the ambient levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in communities of a local government area (Eleme) where oil wells, petrochemical installations, a refinery, and a fertilizer complex are located. Respirable particulate matter (PM) in air were collected using Anderson high-volume sampler with PM with aerodynamic diameter > 10 microm (PM10) inlet for collecting filterable, particle-bound PAHs according to standard methods. PAHs were analyzed following standard methods for the 16 World Health Organization (WHO) prioritized components. The results were compared against the levels in another local government area (Ahoada East) with low industrial presence. The average total PAH concentration in Eleme of 9.2 microg/m3 was among the highest in the world; by contrast, the average concentration in Ahoada East was only 0.17 ng/m3. The most prominent PAHs at Eleme were those known to be carcinogenic and included benzo(a)pyrene (1.6 x 10(4) ng/m3 at bubu), benzo(k)fluoranthene (2.4 x 10(4) ng/m3 at Akpajo where a petrochemical is located), pyrene (3.1 x 10(3) ng/m3 at Ogale), and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (9.1 x 10(3) ng/m3 at Akpajo). Data from this study emphasize the need for a comprehensive source apportionment study and an assessment of the health effects of oil production on local communities of Nigeria where no such information currently exists.

Solid waste management problems in secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Inappropriate solid waste management practices in schools in less-developed countries, particularly in major urban communities, constitute one of the major factors leading to declining environmental health conditions. The objective of the authors' descriptive, cross-sectional study was to assess solid waste management problems in selected urban schools in Ibadan, Nigeria. Eight secondary schools with average pupil populations not less than 500 per school were selected randomly. Four hundred questionnaires (50 per school) were administered. In addition, an observational checklist was used to assess the physical environment. Paper and plastics were the most frequently generated wastes. Common methods of solid waste disposal reported were use of dustbins for collection and open burning. Major problems perceived with current refuse disposal methods by the study students were odors, pest infestation, and spillages. Littering and spillages of solid waste were also common features reported. Data suggested inadequate waste management facilities and practices in study schools. The lack of refuse bins may have contributed to waste spillages and the burning practices. Odors may have arisen from both the decay of overstored organic waste rich in moisture and emissions from refuse burning. This scenario poses a community environmental health nuisance and may compromise school environmental quality.

Assessment of noise and associated health impacts at selected secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Most schools in Ibadan, Nigeria, are located near major roads (mobile line sources). We conducted an initial assessment of noise levels and adverse noise-related health and learning effects. METHODS: For this descriptive, cross-sectional study, four schools were selected randomly from eight participating in overall project. We administered 200 questionnaires, 50 per school, assessing health and learning-related outcomes. Noise levels (A-weighted decibels, dBA) were measured with calibrated sound level meters. Traffic density was assessed for school with the highest measured dBA. Observational checklists assessed noise control parameters and building physical attributes. RESULTS: Short-term, cross-sectional school-day noise levels ranged 68.3-84.7 dBA. Over 60% of respondents reported that vehicular traffic was major source of noise, and over 70% complained being disturbed by noise. Three schools reported tiredness, and one school lack of concentration, as the most prevalent noise-related health problems. CONCLUSION: Secondary school occupants in Ibadan, Nigeria were potentially affected by exposure to noise from mobile line sources.

Identification and initial characterization of prominent air pollution sources and respiratory health at secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria.

OBJECTIVE: Research on air quality in and around schools, and the associated vulnerability of school-age children, is limited in less developed countries (LDCs), particularly Africa. The main objective of this study was to conduct an initial assessment of sources of air pollution in and around schools as a surrogate for air quality and report adverse health effects among students at selected secondary schools in urban Ibadan, Nigeria. METHODS: The study was a descriptive cross-sectional survey involving eight secondary schools selected purposively, defined with eight acronyms (listed alphabetically): ABHS, AGS, BOHS, CDSS, IGS, LC, MGS, and OAHS. We used pre-tested, self-administered questionnaires, observational checklists to assess certain environmental health indicators, and interviews. The questionnaire was divided into five sections including environmental and health conditions. A total of 400 students from senior secondary classes, 50 from each school, were selected through stratified random sampling. RESULTS: The school's location, especially if close to high traffic roadways, contributed to reported perceived poor air quality of school environments. The majority of students believed air pollution sources in the school environment were mainly refuse burning and car emissions from nearby roadways. Cough and asthma were the most frequently reported adverse health outcomes. The highest prevalence of reported recent asthma episodes (symptoms) were recorded at BOHS (84%) and at CDSS (62%); furthermore, at ABHS it was nearly 1-in-2 students and at OAHS about 1-in-5 students. BOHS and OAHS each reported over 10% for prevalence of bronchitis. CONCLUSIONS: Proximity of study schools to certain sources and activities such as refuse burning and major roadways seemed to present substantial risk factors for reported respiratory morbidity among secondary students in urban Ibadan, Nigeria. Future research should quantify source emissions and exposure and further characterize frequency and severity of respiratory symptoms, among other parameters, at schools in Nigeria and other sprawling urban areas of Africa.

Bacteriological quality of drinking water from source to household in Ibadan, Nigeria.

The bacteriological quality of drinking water from well, spring, borehole, and tap sources and that stored in containers by urban households in Ibadan was assessed during wet and dry seasons. The MPN technique was used to detect and enumerate the number of coliforms in water samples. Results showed that majority of households relied on wells, which were found to be the most contaminated of all the sources. At the household level, water quality significantly deteriorated after collection and storage as a result of poor handling. Furthermore, there was significant seasonal variation in E. coli count at source (P=0.013) and household (P=0.001). The study concludes that there is a need to improve the microbial quality of drinking water at source and the household level through hygiene education, and provision of simple, acceptable, low-cost treatment methods.

Application of constructed wetlands to the treatment of leachates from a municipal solid waste landfill in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Leachates are wastewater generated principally from landfills and solid waste disposal sites. Leachates emanating from municipal wastes are a major source of surface and groundwater pollution worldwide. Globally, leachates have been implicated in low yield of farm produce, developmental anomalies, low birth weights, leukemia incidence, and other cancers in communities around the site. They have also been implicated in hazards to the environment, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of water sources. At Aba-Eku in Nigeria, leachates are being discharged into the Omi Stream without treatment. A study was conducted on a method of leachate treatment that passes the leachate through constructed wetlands using Ipomoea aquatica (Forsk), a locally available plant found close to the landfill site. The aim of the study was to evolve a sustainable and cost-effective method of treatment whose effluents can be discharged into the Omi Stream with no or minimal impact. The study was descriptive and analytical in design. Samples were collected and analyzed with standard methods for pH, suspended solids (SS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia, nitrate, and trace metals. Raw leachates were turbid and amber in color and contained suspended solids (197.5 mg/L), ammonia (610.9 mg/L), lead (1.64 mg/L), iron (198.10 mg/L), and manganese (23.20 mg/L). When the leachates were passed through the constructed wetland with eight hours' detention time, effluents showed significant reductions in suspended solids (81.01 percent), BOD (86.03 percent), and ammonia (97.77 percent). The study shows that a constructed wetland is a feasible tool for the treatment of leachates before their disposal into the environment in Nigeria and can help safeguard environmental quality.

Participatory action research: community diagnosis and intervention in controlling urinary schistosomiasis in an urban community in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Schistosomiasis is second only to malaria and is endemic in Nigeria. It has been reported that the infection is more prevalent, irrespective of gender, in the age group 5 to 14 years. It is least among the age group 26 and 55 and occurs mostly in the rural areas in the country. The infection is spreading from the rural areas to various urban communities, particularly the agricultural and fishing populations. In Ibadan, capital of Oyo State in southwestern Nigeria where the focus of this study is made, the infection has been reported among children and adolescents in six Local Government Areas. Students of Advanced Diploma in Health Education (ADHE) of the Department of Health Promotion and Education, during a community diagnosis exercise among primary schools in two communities in Ibadan, met with this problem. The purpose of this study is to mobilize the affected communities, with both internal and external resources through a participatory-action process, to combat the infection which is one of their major problems. Since the providence of schistosomiasis in target communities is age related, investigations were concentrated in 17 Primary Schools in the two communities. The investigation involved laboratory confirmation by collecting 147 urine samples from a total population of 676 children and examining them microscopically for the schistosoma ova. In addition, the quality of stream water and their vector presence were assessed. The key intervention strategy used was community mobilization of both internal and external resources of targeted communities. The striking outcome of the intervention study is that the outbreak of schistosomiasis in the communities was formally reported to the Federal Ministry of Health and the Oyo State Ministry of Health. All infected pupils were treated, the long awaited water scheme to replace the broken pipes was completed, and two new water supply schemes were implemented by the communities. Further, the communities displayed sign boards prohibiting community members from fetching water from "Dandaru" river for daily domestic needs. It is concluded that the combined efforts of all the actors helped the community to enjoy improved water supply and reduced their exposure to infection from the stream, which was the source of the infection.

Noise levels in the hospital environment in Ibadan.

Noise levels were measured in 3 hospitals in Ibadan; a teaching hospital with approximately 800 beds and 2 general hospitals with about 200 beds each. A type 2 digital integrating sound level meter was used to measure noise levels in selected sites. Children's clinics and wards in the teaching hospital recorded the highest noise levels, 68-73db(A) and 55-77db(A) respectively, compared to similar facilities for adults. High noise levels 74-89dB(A) were also recorded in the operating rooms. Noise levels above 80db (A) were recorded in service areas such as the boiler room, and laundry and generator rooms in the teaching hospital. Corresponding sites in the general hospitals were less noisy as such services are provided at a minimum in these hospitals. Sleep interference is known to occur at noise levels recorded in this study. Staff conversation makes a large contribution to noise levels in patient care areas. The use of hospital equipment in patient care also contributes to the noise levels especially in operating room. This can be reduced if attention is drawn to this as an important part of patient care. Noise levels in service areas need to be monitored closely and workers in those areas may need hearing protection and regular audiometric assessment.

Dental fluorosis and fluoride mapping in Langtang town, Nigeria.

This study is aimed at measuring the fluoride concentrations of different water supplies in a Nigerian community known to have endemic fluorosis. This is with the view of mapping out a pattern and to investigate the relationship of this pattern with the distribution of dental fluorosis among residents of the community. A representative sample of 475 persons selected on the basis of criteria described in an earlier publication, constituted the study subjects. Clinical examination were carried out after obtaining sociodemographic information from the subjects. Analyses of fluoride concentrations in 136 water samples revealed, in general the highest levels in stream water range: 2.39-3.96 ppm, followed by wells (range: 1.26-2.82 ppm) and the least in pipe-borne water (range: 0.5-0.97 ppm). In plotting specific fluoride readings from the different identified sources on the geographical map of the study area, a distinctive pattern emerged. High fluoride readings were generally in the highland areas from which rivers and streams took origin. Approximately 50% of the town was supplied with water containing fluoride above the optimum. As reported in the earlier publication, the prevalence of dental fluorosis was found to be 26.1%. The age specific prevalence rate indicated the highest occurrence rate among those aged 10-19 years. Six of the participating children had involvement of deciduous teeth. Even though no correlation was established between dental fluorosis and sex on one hand and fluorosis and ethnicity on the other, there was a markedly significant association between fluorosis and source of drinking water (P < 0.05). Those who drank from streams appeared more likely to have fluorosis. It was concluded that though other sources of fluoride ingestion have been documented, it appeared that water may play a very significant role in the aetiology of fluorosis in this community.

Alternate nitrogen amendments for organic fertilizers.

The use of compost or manure in agriculture as an organic source of nutrients is common in many tropical, developing countries like Nigeria. One of the drawbacks of such materials is their low nitrogen (N) content (=1% N). Farmers commonly use chemical N fertilizers such as urea, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), and NPK formulations to obtain better crop growth and yield. These chemical supplements may have a negative impact on the environment through nitrate leaching into water, leading to eutrophication of surface waters that can affect public health. Gliricidia sepium, a fast-growing, tropical, perennial hedge plant was tested as a source of N in organo-mineral fertilizer formulations. Average nutrient content of Gliricidia is 3.8% N, 0.32% P, 1.8% K, 0.8% Ca, and 0.2% Mg. Using a sand culture and Amaranthus caudatus as a test crop, it was shown that amending commercial composts with 30% Gliricidia prunings would benefit many small-scale farmers and control environmental pollution.

Ground water in Nigerian urban centres: problems and options.

Results of a groundwater study in Nigeria in some of the major cities in the southern part, Lagos, Ibadan; in the eastern part, Warri, Benin, and Aba, and in northern part, Kano and Jos indicates that the quality of waters fell far below the WHO recommended levels for some of the quality parameters. The levels of nitrate, lead and coliform index were particularly far above the WHO limits, and some of the waters have higher levels of iron with low pH values. The quality is poor in high density or low-income areas. In addition Lagos waters also showed intrusion of salinity in the localities closer to the coast. Poor ground water quality was attributed to intrusion of sullage or gray water, indiscriminate defecation, and dumping of household refuse, industrial and hazardous wastes around the premises. Lead from locally produced gasoline and heavy road traffic in the urban centres, seepage of various leachates, inadequate governmental policies and poor implementation strategies, and indifferent attitudes of communities to the environment are some of the other identified reasons.

Prevalence and distribution pattern of enamel fluorosis in Langtang town, Nigeria.

Dental fluorosis, a defect which causes white flecks or brown staining of the teeth, has been reported in some parts of the world. This study, a descriptive, cross-sectional survey was designed to determine the prevalence and distribution pattern of dental fluorosis in Langtang town, Plateau State of Nigeria between April and June 1997. Community members had recognised the discolouration of teeth as a public health problem for which solution had been sought from the near-by public health agency. A representative sample of 475 persons drawn from the 7 wards of the local government area were interviewed. Information on their age, ethnicity, occupation and source of drinking water were obtained. Intra-oral examinations were conducted to determine the status of participants' enamel using a modified version of Dean's classification of enamel mottling. Results revealed a 26.1% prevalence rate of enamel fluorosis, with 20.6% of the cases classified as mild and 5.5% as severe. While the prevalence rate was not influenced by sex and ethnicity, it was strongly associated with the source of drinking water (P < 0.05). Drinking from streams seemed to increase the likelihood of participants having dental fluorosis. A pattern of distribution with age also emerged with the highest prevalence being among the 10-19 years age group. Six cases were detected in deciduous teeth. In view of the strong indication of an environmental aetiological basis, there is need for the determination of the current levels of fluoride in water, foods beverages and other likely sources of exposure in that community.

Nutrition and lung health.

There is an increasing interest in the relationship between nutrition and lung health. Epidemiological studies suggest that dietary habits may have an influence on lung function and the tendency to common lung diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer. In particular, a diet rich in fresh fruit and fish has been associated with a salutary effect on lung health. End-stage COPD is associated with a state of nutritional depletion which is refractory to conventional nutritional supplementation. In contrast, malnutrition associated with cystic fibrosis is amenable to nutritional therapy, which has been shown to improve prognosis in this disease.