Sodium Phenylbutyrate and Edaravone Abrogate Chronic Restraint Stress-Induced Behavioral Deficits: Implication of Oxido-Nitrosative, Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Cascade, and Neuroinflammation.

Chronic stress exposure can produce deleterious effects on the hippocampus (HC) which eventually leads to cognitive impairment and depression. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been reported as one of the major culprits in the development of stress-induced cognitive impairment and depression. We investigated the neuroprotective efficacy of sodium phenylbutyrate (SPB), an ER stress inhibitor, and edaravone, a free radical scavenger, against chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced cognitive deficits and anxiety- and depressive-like behavior in mice. Adult male Swiss albino mice were restrained for 6 h/day for 28 days and injected (i.p.) with SPB (40 and 120 mg/kg) or edaravone (3 and 10 mg/kg) for the last seven days. After stress cessation, the anxiety- and depressive-like behavior along with spatial learning and memory were examined. Furthermore, oxido-nitrosative stress, proinflammatory cytokines, and gene expression level of ER stress-related genes were assessed in HC and prefrontal cortex (PFC). CRS-exposed mice showed anxiety- and depressive-like behavior, which was significantly improved by SPB and edaravone treatment. In addition, SPB and edaravone treatment significantly alleviated CRS-induced spatial learning and memory impairment. Furthermore, CRS-evoked oxido-nitrosative stress, neuroinflammation, and depletion of Brain-derived neurotrophic factor were significantly ameliorated by SPB and edaravone treatment. We found significant up-regulation of ER stress-related genes in both HC and PFC regions, which were suppressed by SPB and edaravone treatment in CRS mice. Our study provides evidence that SPB and edaravone exerted neuroprotective effects on CRS-induced cognitive deficits and anxiety- and depressive-like behavior, which is possibly coupled with inhibition of oxido-nitrosative stress, neuroinflammation, and ER stress cascade.

Epigenetic Modifications, Alcoholic Brain and Potential Drug Targets.

Acute and chronic alcohol exposure evidently influences epigenetic changes, both transiently and permanently, and these changes in turn influence a variety of cells and organ systems throughout the body. Many of the alcohol-induced epigenetic modifications can contribute to cellular adaptations that ultimately lead to behavioral tolerance and alcohol dependence. The persistence of behavioral changes demonstrates that long-lasting changes in gene expression, within particular regions of the brain, may contribute importantly to the addiction phenotype. The research activities over the past years have demonstrated a crucial role of epigenetic mechanisms in causing long lasting and transient changes in the expression of several genes in diverse tissues, including brain. This has stimulated recent research work that is aimed at characterizing the influence of epigenetic regulatory events in mediating the long lasting and transient effects of alcohol abuse on the brain in humans and animal models of alcohol addiction. In this study, we update our current understanding of the impact of alcohol exposure on epigenetic mechanisms in the brain and refurbish the knowledge of epigenetics in the direction of new drugs development.

Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Behavioral Alterations Are Alleviated by Sodium Phenylbutyrate via Attenuation of Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammatory Cascade.

Oxido-nitrosative stress, neuroinflammation, and reduced level of neurotrophins are implicated in the pathophysiology of anxiety and depressive illness. A few recent studies have revealed the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the pathophysiology of stress and depression. The aim of the present study is to investigate the neuroprotective potential of sodium phenylbutyrate (SPB), an ER stress inhibitor against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced anxiety and depressive-like behavior in Swiss albino mice. Anxiety and depressive-like behavior was induced by LPS (0.83 mg/kg; i.p.) administration. Various behavioral tests were conducted to evaluate the anxiety and depressive-like behavior in mice. Real-time PCR was employed for the detection and expression of ER stress markers (78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein homologous protein (CHOP)). Pretreatment with SPB significantly ameliorated the LPS-induced anxiety and depressive-like behavior as revealed by behavioral paradigm results. LPS-induced oxidative stress was ameliorated by SPB pretreatment in hippocampus (HC) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) region. Neuroinflammation was significantly reduced by SPB pretreatment in LPS-treated mice as evident from reduction in proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß and TNF-α). Importantly, LPS administration significantly up-regulated the GRP78 mRNA expression level in the HC which suggests the involvement of unfolded protein response (UPR) in LPS-evoked behavioral anomalies. These results highlight the neuroprotective potential of SPB in LPS-induced anxiety and depressive illness model which may be partially due to inhibition of oxidative stress-neuroinflammatory cascade.

Edaravone abrogates LPS-induced behavioral anomalies, neuroinflammation and PARP-1.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is a DNA nick-sensor enzyme that functions at the center of cellular stress response and affects the immune system at several key points, and thus modulates inflammatory diseases. Our previous study demonstrated that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depressive-like behavior in mice can be ameliorated by 3-aminobenzamide, which is a PARP-1 inhibitor. In the present study we've examined the effect of a free radical scavenger, edaravone pretreatment against LPS-induced anxiety and depressive-like behavior as well as various hippocampal biochemical parameters including PARP-1. Male Swiss albino mice were treated with edaravone (3 & 10mg/kgi.p.) once daily for 14days. On the 14th day 30min after edaravone treatment mice were challenged with LPS (1mg/kgi.p.). After 3h and 24h of LPS administration we've tested mice for anxiety and depressive-like behaviors respectively. Western blotting analysis of PARP-1 in hippocampus was carried out after 12h of LPS administration. Moreover, after 24h of LPS administration serum corticosterone, hippocampal BDNF, oxido-nitrosative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines were estimated by ELISA. Results showed that pretreatment of edaravone (10mg/kg) ameliorates LPS-induced anxiety and depressive-like behavior. Western blotting analysis showed that LPS-induced anomalous expression of PARP-1 significantly reverses by the pretreatment of edaravone (10mg/kg). Biochemical analyses revealed that LPS significantly diminishes BDNF, increases pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxido-nitrosative stress in the hippocampus. However, pretreatment with edaravone (10mg/kg) prominently reversed all these biochemical alterations. Our study emphasized that edaravone pretreatment prevents LPS-induced anxiety and depressive-like behavior, mainly by impeding the inflammation, oxido-nitrosative stress and PARP-1 overexpression.

Alternative mechanisms of inhibiting activity of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1.

Poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP-1), a DNA nick-sensor enzyme, is an abundant nuclear protein. Upon sensing DNA breaks, PARP-1 gets activated and cleaves NAD into nicotinamide and ADP-ribose and polymerizes the latter onto nuclear acceptor proteins including histones, transcription factors, and PARP-1 itself. Poly(ADP-ribosylation) mainly contributes to DNA repairing mechanism. However, oxidative stress-induced over-activation of PARP-1 consumes excess of NAD and consequently ATP, culminating into cell necrosis. This cellular suicide pathway has been implicated in several conditions such as stroke, myocardial ischemia, diabetes. Thus, it can be a rationale approach to inhibit the activity of PARP-1 for reducing detrimental effects associated with oxidative stress-induced over-activation of PARP-1. Several preclinical as well as clinical studies of PARP-1 inhibitors have been used in conditions such as cancer, stroke and traumatic brain injury. Conventionally, there are many studies which employed the concept of direct inhibition of PARP-1 by competing with NAD. Here, in the present review, we highlight several prospective alternative approaches for the inhibition of PARP-1 activity.

Honokiol abrogates chronic restraint stress-induced cognitive impairment and depressive-like behaviour by blocking endoplasmic reticulum stress in the hippocampus of mice.

The primary objective of our study is to investigate the neuroprotective efficacy of honokiol and imipramine against restraint stress (RS)-induced cognitive impairment and depressive-like behaviour in mice. We examined whether the neuroprotective activity of honokiol and imipramine mediates through the inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Adult Swiss albino mice were restrained for 6h/day for 28 days. Honokiol (3 and 10mg/kg) and Imipramine (10 and 30mg/kg) were administered for last 7 days to the different groups. Cognitive function was assessed by Morris water maze and novel object recognition test. Forced swimming test and tail suspension test were performed to evaluate the restraint stress-induced depressive-like behaviour. Proinflammatory cytokines, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and ER stress markers i.e. 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) were quantified in the hippocampus. We observed cognitive impairment and depressive-like behaviour in RS-exposed animals. Honokiol (10mg/kg) treated group depicted marked reduction in cognitive impairment and depressive-like behaviour. However, imipramine (10 and 30mg/kg) prevented the depressive-like behaviour but failed to prevent RS-induced cognitive impairment. Moreover, proinflammatory cytokines, GRP78 and CHOP were elevated in the hippocampus of stressed mice as compared to unstressed mice. Honokiol (10mg/kg) significantly prevented the RS-induced elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and endoplasmic reticulum stress markers. Our results clearly suggest the beneficial potential of honokiol in restraint stress through inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Honokiol could be an intriguing therapeutic approach in endoplasmic reticulum stress related neuro-pathophysiological conditions.

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 inhibitor, 3-aminobenzamide pretreatment ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced neurobehavioral and neurochemical anomalies in mice.

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) functions at the center of cellular stress and sways the immune system at several key points, thus modulates inflammatory diseases. The antiinflammatory properties of PARP-1 inhibitors have been demonstrated ameliorating effect in various neuroinflammatory disorders. It has been reported that there is a close relationship between the inflammatory processes and major depressive disorder. In the present study, we have elucidated the role of oxidative-nitrosative stress-PARP-1 pathway in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neurobehavioral and neurochemical alterations in mice. 3-Aminobenzamide (10 and 30mg/kg) and imipramine (10 and 30mg/kg) were administered once daily for 14days. Mice were challenged with LPS (1mg/kg, i.p.) 30min after drug administration on the 14th day. The mRNA expression level of PARP-1 (12h after LPS injection) in the hippocampus was measured through quantitative real-time PCR. All the behavioral and biochemical parameters were assessed at 24h after LPS injection. The expression level of PARP-1mRNA was found significantly up-regulated in the hippocampus at 12h after LPS administration. Results showed that the LPS-challenged mice exhibited an increase in immobility time seen in forced swimming test and tail suspension test. LPS increased the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and oxido-nitrosative stress parameters in the hippocampus. However, pretreatment with 3-aminobenzamide (30mg/kg) significantly reversed the LPS-induced alterations in behavioral parameters, proinflammatory cytokines, oxidative-nitrosative stress and PARP-1 mRNA levels. Imipramine failed to prevent the up-regulation of PARP-1 induced by LPS administration. Our results emphasized that oxidative-nitrosative stress-PARP-1 cascade can play a key role in LPS-induced neurobehavioral and neurochemical anomalies.

Natural killer cells: the journey from puzzles in biology to treatment of cancer.

Natural Killer (NK) cells are innate immune effectors that are primarily involved in immunosurveillance to spontaneously eliminate malignantly transformed and virally infected cells without prior sensitization. NK cells trigger targeted attack through release of cytotoxic granules, and secrete various cytokines and chemokines to promote subsequent adaptive immune responses. NK cells selectively attack target cells with diminished major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I expression. This "Missing-self" recognition by NK cells at first puzzled researchers in the early 1990s, and the mystery was solved with the discovery of germ line encoded killer immunoglobulin receptors that recognize MHC-I molecules. This review summarizes the biology of NK cells detailing the phenotypes, receptors and functions; interactions of NK cells with dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages and T cells. Further we discuss the various strategies to modulate NK cell activity and the practice of NK cells in cancer immunotherapy employing NK cell lines, autologous, allogeneic and genetically engineered cell populations.