Status and correlates of non-communicable diseases among children and adolescents in slum and non-slum areas of India's four metropolitan cities.

The emergence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in childhood poses a serious risk to a healthy adult life. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of NCDs among children and adolescents in slums and non-slums areas of four metropolitan cities of India, and in rural areas of the respective states The study further, investigated the effect of the place residence as slum vs. non-slum and other risk factors of the NCDs. Nationally representative data from the Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey (CNNS) was used.. Estimates were based on children (5-9 years) and adolescents (10-19 years) for whom biomarkers predicting diabetes, high total cholesterol, high triglycerides and hypertension were determined. Weight, height and age data were used to calculate z-scores of the body mass index. Overweight and obesity was higher in urban areas than in rural areas among children and adolescents. Regional differences in the prevalence of diseases were observed; children in Delhi and Chennai had a higher likelihood of being diabetic while children in Kolkata were at a greater risk of high total cholesterol and high triglycerides. The risk of hypertension was strikingly high among non-slum children in Delhi. Children from slums were at a higher risk of diabetes compared to the children from non-slums, while children and adolecents from non-slums were at a greater risk of high triglycerides and hypertension respectively than their counterparts from slums. Male children and adolecents had a higher risk of diabetes and high cholesterol. Screening of children for early detection of NCDs should be integrated with the already existing child and adolescent development schemes in schools and the community can help in prevention and control of NCDs in childhood.

Status and correlates of micronutrient deficiencies in slum and non-slum areas of India's four metropolitan cities: Investigation from CNNS.

Micronutrient malnutrition is an emerging public health concern globally. It affects people of all ages and socioeconomic groups; however, the most marginalized are the worst affected. Using data from the Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey 2016-18, we determined the magnitude of deficiencies (of iron, zinc, vitamin A, folate, vitamins B12 and D) among children and adolescents (1-19 years of age) living in four metropolitan cities of India. Separate estimates by residence in slum and non-slum areas were derived for pre-school and school-aged children and adolescents. The association between each micronutrient deficiency (MND) and place of residence, exposure to progarmmes, socioeconomic, and demographic variables was assessed using Poisson regression. Of all children in the sample, at least seven out of 10 children suffered from some kind of MND. Anaemia was prevalent among all children but at different levels among various age-groups. Folate deficiency was highly prevalent among children in slums whereas deficiencies of vitamin D and zinc were more prevalent among non-slum children. Dietary diversity reduced the risk of deficiencies- Vitamin A in children 1-9, anaemea in 1-4 age, folate in children 5-19. Exposure to government-sponsored nutrition programmes such as mid-day meal, and IFA did not show any significant effect on reducing deficiencies. However, adolescents exposed to IFA supplementation programmes were less likely to be folate deficient. Overall, government schemes that have been running for decades, and intensified lately, are yet to show noticeable positive effect on micronutrient status of children. Nevertheless, differential estimates by slum/non-slum residence and by age-groups calls for devising different strategies for different sub-groups to address the issue of MNDs among children and adolescents. Nutrition education not only for slum residents but also for those from non-slum areas is an urgent need to check the spread of MNDs.

Educational differences in US parents' time spent in child care: The role of culture and cross-spouse influence.

We explore effects of parents' education on how much time they spend in child care, using a sample of married and cohabiting parents from the 2003 to 2011 American Time Use Study. We find that more educated parents spend more time in child care, despite having higher employment rates. For men, there is some mixed evidence that their own education increases their child care time, but much stronger evidence that their child care time is influenced by their wives' education. For women, it is largely their own education affecting their child care time. We also assess whether the higher earnings of the well educated, which could be used to outsource housework, explains why they spend more time in child care. Results do not support this hypothesis; educational differences do not change much under controls for his and her earnings or housework. This suggests that the effects of education on child care result from different cultural conceptions of child rearing held by the well educated, especially by women, whose education affects both their own and their husbands' child care time.