RNA sequencing of microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages from mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis illustrates a changing phenotype with disease course.

The role of microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis pathogenesis has been controversial. To gain insight into their respective roles, we developed a method for differentiating between microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages in the CNS by flow cytometry utilizing anti-CD44 antibodies. We used this system to monitor changes in cell number, activation status, and gene expression by RNA sequencing over the course of disease. This in vivo characterization and RNA-Seq dataset improves our understanding of macrophage biology in the brain under inflammatory conditions and may lead to strategies to identify therapies for neuroinflammatory diseases.

CCR1 plays a critical role in modulating pain through hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells.

Inflammation is associated with immune cells infiltrating into the inflammatory site and pain. CC chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1) mediates trafficking of leukocytes to sites of inflammation. However, the contribution of CCR1 to pain is incompletely understood. Here we report an unexpected discovery that CCR1-mediated trafficking of neutrophils and CCR1 activity on non-hematopoietic cells both modulate pain. Using a genetic approach (CCR1-/- animals) and pharmacological inhibition of CCR1 with selective inhibitors, we show significant reductions in pain responses using the acetic acid-induced writhing and complete Freund's adjuvant-induced mechanical hyperalgesia models. Reductions in writhing correlated with reduced trafficking of myeloid cells into the peritoneal cavity. We show that CCR1 is highly expressed on circulating neutrophils and their depletion decreases acetic acid-induced writhing. However, administration of neutrophils into the peritoneal cavity did not enhance acetic acid-induced writhing in wild-type (WT) or CCR1-/- mice. Additionally, selective knockout of CCR1 in either the hematopoietic or non-hematopoietic compartments also reduced writhing. Together these data suggest that CCR1 functions to significantly modulate pain by controlling neutrophil trafficking to the inflammatory site and having an unexpected role on non-hematopoietic cells. As inflammatory diseases are often accompanied with infiltrating immune cells at the inflammatory site and pain, CCR1 antagonism may provide a dual benefit by restricting leukocyte trafficking and reducing pain.

A GPBAR1 (TGR5) small molecule agonist shows specific inhibitory effects on myeloid cell activation in vitro and reduces experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) in vivo.

GPBAR1 is a G protein-coupled receptor that is activated by certain bile acids and plays an important role in the regulation of bile acid synthesis, lipid metabolism, and energy homeostasis. Recent evidence suggests that GPBAR1 may also have important effects in reducing the inflammatory response through its expression on monocytes and macrophages. To further understand the role of GPBAR1 in inflammation, we generated a novel, selective, proprietary GPBAR1 agonist and tested its effectiveness at reducing monocyte and macrophage activation in vitro and in vivo. We have used this agonist, together with previously described agonists to study agonism of GPBAR1, and shown that they can all induce cAMP and reduce TLR activation-induced cytokine production in human monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages in vitro. Additionally, through the usage of RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq), we identified a select set of genes that are regulated by GPBAR1 agonism during LPS activation. To further define the in vivo role of GPBAR1 in inflammation, we assessed GPBAR1 expression and found high levels on circulating mouse monocytes. Agonism of GPBAR1 reduced LPS-induced cytokine production in mouse monocytes ex vivo and serum cytokine levels in vivo. Agonism of GPBAR1 also had profound effects in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model of multiple sclerosis, where monocytes play an important role. Mice treated with the GPBAR1 agonist exhibited a significant reduction in the EAE clinical score which correlated with reduced monocyte and microglial activation and reduced trafficking of monocytes and T cells into the CNS. These data confirm the importance of GPBAR1 in controlling monocyte and macrophage activation in vivo and support the rationale for selective agonists of GPBAR1 in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Circulating monocytes are reduced by sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators independently of S1P3.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptors are critical for lymphocyte egress from secondary lymphoid organs, and S1P receptor modulators suppress lymphocyte circulation. However, the role of S1P receptors on monocytes is less clear. To elucidate this, we systematically evaluated monocytes in rats and mice, both in naive and inflammatory conditions, with S1P receptor modulators FTY720 and BAF312. We demonstrate that S1P receptor modulators reduce circulating monocytes in a similar time course as lymphocytes. Furthermore, total monocyte numbers were increased in the spleen and bone marrow, suggesting that S1P receptor modulation restricts egress from hematopoietic organs. Monocytes treated ex vivo with FTY720 had reduced CD40 expression and TNF-α production, suggesting a direct effect on monocyte activation. Similar reductions in protein expression and cytokine production were also found in vivo. Suppression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice and rats by FTY720 correlated with reduced numbers of lymphocytes and monocytes. These effects on monocytes were independent of S1P3, as treatment with BAF312, a S1P1,4,5 modulator, led to similar results. These data reveal a novel role for S1P receptors on monocytes and offer additional insights on the mechanism of action of S1P receptor modulators in disease.

Discovery of novel phenolic antioxidants as inhibitors of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression for use in chronic inflammatory diseases.

Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) mediates recruitment of leukocytes to endothelial cells and is implicated in many inflammatory conditions. Since part of the signal transduction pathway that regulates the activation of VCAM-1 expression is redox-sensitive, compounds with antioxidant properties may have inhibitory effects on VCAM-1 expression. Novel phenolic compounds have been designed and synthesized starting from probucol (1). Many of these compounds demonstrated potent inhibitory effects on cytokine-induced VCAM-1 expression and displayed potent antioxidant effects in vitro. Some of these derivatives (4o, 4p, 4w, and 4x) inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), and IL-6 from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs) in a concentration-dependent manner in vitro and showed antiinflammatory effects in an animal model. Compounds 4ad and 4ae are currently in clinical trials for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and prevention of chronic organ transplant rejection, respectively.