An ocean of diffusible information.

In the ocean, free-living bacteria exist in a dilute world where direct physical interactions between cells are relatively rare. How then do they exchange genetic information via horizontal gene transfer (HGT)? Lücking et al. have explored the world of marine 'protected extracellular DNA' (peDNA), and find that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are likely to play an important role.

Identification of botanicals with potential therapeutic use against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections.

Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen. Over- and improper-use of pharmaceuticals against S. aureus has led to the development of antibiotic resistance, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). This study examined the efficacy of botanical extracts as an alternative form of treatment to S. aureus and MRSA, including penicillin/methicillin-resistant S. aureus (PenR ), and multidrug resistant S. aureus (MDR). Initial screening of botanicals was done via a minimum inhibitory concentration procedure. In addition, a temporal growth curve was performed in order to quantify the growth of the bacteria in the presence of the extracts. Results demonstrated 13 botanicals that had varying activities against S. aureus, PenR , and MDR. These botanicals were separated into mild, moderate, and highly efficacious based on the concentration needed to inhibit bacterial growth. These results propose a comparison of botanical-derived antimicrobial extracts that may be utilized against S. aureus and different antibiotic resistant strains of MRSA.

Quantitative intravascular biological fluorescence-ultrasound imaging of coronary and peripheral arteries in vivo.

AIMS: (i) to evaluate a novel hybrid near-infrared fluorescence-intravascular ultrasound (NIRF-IVUS) system in coronary and peripheral swine arteries in vivo; (ii) to assess simultaneous quantitative biological and morphological aspects of arterial disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Two 9F/15MHz peripheral and 4.5F/40MHz coronary near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF)-IVUS catheters were engineered to enable accurate co-registrtation of biological and morphological readings simultaneously in vivo. A correction algorithm utilizing IVUS information was developed to account for the distance-related fluorescence attenuation due to through-blood imaging. Corrected NIRF (cNIRF)-IVUS was applied for in vivo imaging of angioplasty-induced vascular injury in swine peripheral arteries and experimental fibrin deposition on coronary artery stents, and of atheroma in a rabbit aorta, revealing feasibility to intravascularly assay plaque structure and inflammation. The addition of ICG-enhanced NIRF assessment improved the detection of angioplasty-induced endothelial damage compared to standalone IVUS. In addition, NIRF detection of coronary stent fibrin by in vivo cNIRF-IVUS imaging illuminated stent pathobiology that was concealed on standalone IVUS. Fluorescence reflectance imaging and microscopy of resected tissues corroborated the in vivo findings. CONCLUSIONS: Integrated cNIRF-IVUS enables simultaneous co-registered through-blood imaging of disease related morphological and biological alterations in coronary and peripheral arteries in vivo. Clinical translation of cNIRF-IVUS may significantly enhance knowledge of arterial pathobiology, leading to improvements in clinical diagnosis and prognosis, and helps to guide the development of new therapeutic approaches for arterial diseases.

Interpretation of dark-field contrast and particle-size selectivity in grating interferometers.

In grating-based x-ray phase sensitive imaging, dark-field contrast refers to the extinction of the interference fringes due to small-angle scattering. For configurations where the sample is placed before the beamsplitter grating, the dark-field contrast has been quantified with theoretical wave propagation models. Yet when the grating is placed before the sample, the dark-field contrast has only been modeled in the geometric optics regime. Here we attempt to quantify the dark-field effect in the grating-before-sample geometry with first-principle wave calculations and understand the associated particle-size selectivity. We obtain an expression for the dark-field effect in terms of the sample material's complex refractive index, which can be verified experimentally without fitting parameters. A dark-field computed tomography experiment shows that the particle-size selectivity can be used to differentiate materials of identical x-ray absorption.

A grating-based single-shot x-ray phase contrast and diffraction method for in vivo imaging.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to develop a single-shot version of the grating-based phase contrast x-ray imaging method and demonstrate its capability of in vivo animal imaging. Here, the authors describe the principle and experimental results. They show the source of artifacts in the phase contrast signal and optimal designs that minimize them. They also discuss its current limitations and ways to overcome them. METHODS: A single lead grid was inserted midway between an x-ray tube and an x-ray camera in the planar radiography setting. The grid acted as a transmission grating and cast periodic dark fringes on the camera. The camera had sufficient spatial resolution to resolve the fringes. Refraction and diffraction in the imaged object manifested as position shifts and amplitude attenuation of the fringes, respectively. In order to quantify these changes precisely without imposing a fixed geometric relationship between the camera pixel array and the fringes, a spatial harmonic method in the Fourier domain was developed. The level of the differential phase (refraction) contrast as a function of hardware specifications and device geometry was derived and used to guide the optimal placement of the grid and object. Both ex vivo and in vivo images of rodent extremities were collected to demonstrate the capability of the method. The exposure time using a 50 W tube was 28 s. RESULTS: Differential phase contrast images of glass beads acquired at various grid and object positions confirmed theoretical predictions of how phase contrast and extraneous artifacts vary with the device geometry. In anesthetized rats, a single exposure yielded artifact-free images of absorption, differential phase contrast, and diffraction. Differential phase contrast was strongest at bone-soft tissue interfaces, while diffraction was strongest in bone. CONCLUSIONS: The spatial harmonic method allowed us to obtain absorption, differential phase contrast, and diffraction images, all from a single raw image and is feasible in live animals. Because the sensitivity of the method scales with the density of the gratings, custom microfabricated gratings should be superior to off-the-shelf lead grids.

Selective imaging of nano-particle contrast agents by a single-shot x-ray diffraction technique.

Iron oxide nano-particles have very different x-ray diffraction properties from tissue. They can be clearly visualized against suppressed tissue background in a single-shot x-ray diffraction imaging technique. This technique is able to acquire both diffraction and absorption images from a single grating-modulated projection image through analysis in the spatial frequency domain. We describe the use of two orthogonal transmission gratings to selectively retain diffraction signal from iron oxide particles that are larger than a threshold size, while eliminating the background signal from soft tissue and bone. This approach should help the tracking of functionalized particles in cell labeling and targeted therapy.

Simultaneous myocardial strain and dark-blood perfusion imaging using a displacement-encoded MRI pulse sequence.

The purpose of this study is to develop and evaluate a displacement-encoded pulse sequence for simultaneous perfusion and strain imaging. Displacement-encoded images in two to three myocardial slices were repeatedly acquired using a single-shot pulse sequence for 3 to 4 min, which covers a bolus infusion of Gadolinium contrast. The magnitudes of the images were T(1) weighted and provided quantitative measures of perfusion, while the phase maps yielded strain measurements. In an acute coronary occlusion swine protocol (n = 9), segmental perfusion measurements were validated against microsphere reference standard with a linear regression (slope 0.986, R(2) = 0.765, Bland-Altman standard deviation = 0.15 mL/min/g). In a group of ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients (n = 11), the scan success rate was 76%. Short-term contrast washout rate and perfusion are highly correlated (R(2) = 0.72), and the pixelwise relationship between circumferential strain and perfusion was better described with a sigmoidal Hill curve than linear functions. This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring strain and perfusion from a single set of images.

Single-shot x-ray differential phase-contrast and diffraction imaging using two-dimensional transmission gratings.

We describe an x-ray differential phase-contrast imaging method based on two-dimensional transmission gratings that are directly resolved by an x-ray camera. X-ray refraction and diffraction in the sample lead to variations of the positions and amplitudes of the grating fringes on the camera. These effects can be quantified through spatial harmonic analysis. The use of 2D gratings allows differential phase contrast in several directions to be obtained from a single image. When compared to previous grating-based interferometry methods, this approach obviates the need for multiple exposures and separate measurements for different directions and thereby accelerates imaging speed.

Evaluation of the complex transcriptional topography of mesenchymal stem cell chondrogenesis for cartilage tissue engineering.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a promising cell source for cartilage tissue engineering given their chondrogenic potential. This potential has yet to be fully realized, as the mechanical properties of MSC-based constructs are lower than those of chondrocyte-based constructs cultured identically. The aim of this study was to better understand the transcriptional underpinnings of this functional limitation. Matched chondrocytes and MSCs from three donors were cultured in agarose in a defined medium containing transforming growth factor beta3 (TGF-beta3). We evaluated the compressive mechanical properties and matrix deposition of maturing constructs over 56 days. Transcriptional differences between the two cell types were assessed on day 0 and 28 via microarray analysis and real-time polymerase chain reaction; differential deposition of matrix molecules was assessed by immunohistochemistry. Although the mechanical and biochemical properties of cell-seeded constructs improved with culture duration, MSC values plateaued at day 28, and remained lower than chondrocyte values. Using microarray analysis, 324 genes were identified as mis-expressed during chondrogenesis. Differential expression of 18 genes was validated, and differential deposition of proteoglycan 4 and TGF-beta-induced 68 kDa protein (TGFBI) was confirmed. Temporal expression profiles of these 18 genes showed that some genes were never expressed (chondromodulin), some were expressed at lower levels (proteoglycan 4), and some were expressed only at later time points (TGFBI) in MSCs compared to chondrocytes. These findings further define the complex transcriptional topography of MSC chondrogenesis, and provide new benchmarks for optimizing the growth of MSC-based engineered cartilage.

Transient exposure to transforming growth factor beta 3 improves the mechanical properties of mesenchymal stem cell-laden cartilage constructs in a density-dependent manner.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are an attractive cell source for cartilage tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. However, the use of these cells has been limited by their reduced ability to form functional tissue compared to chondrocytes when placed in three-dimensional culture systems. To optimize MSC functional chondrogenesis, we examined the effects of increasing seeding density and transient application of transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGF-beta3), two factors previously shown to improve growth of chondrocyte-based constructs. Chondrocytes seeded in agarose at 20 million cells/mL and MSCs seeded at 20 or 60 million cells/mL agarose were cultured for 7 weeks under continuous or transient application of TGF-beta3. In the transient group, cell-laden constructs were exposed to TGF-beta3 for the initial 3 weeks, followed by 4 weeks of culture in medium without TGF-beta3. Compressive properties, biochemical content, and gene expression were assessed at 3, 5, and 7 weeks. Matrix distribution and collagen type was determined using histology and immunohistochemistry, and chondrogenic and osteogenic markers were assessed using real-time polymerase chain reaction. When maintained continuously with TGF-beta3, chondrocyte-seeded constructs achieved a higher equilibrium compressive modulus than MSCs similarly maintained. Although properties of both groups increased with respect to starting values, there was no difference in bulk mechanical or biochemical properties with higher seeding density when MSCs were cultured with constant TGF-beta3. Findings also showed that while transient application of TGF-beta3 elicited robust growth from chondrocyte-laden gels, MSCs seeded at the same density failed to respond, although constructs maintained their previously accrued properties and continued to express cartilaginous genes after TGF-beta3 removal. Conversely, MSCs seeded at 60 million cells/mL exhibited a strong anabolic response with transient TGF-beta3 exposure, achieving an equilibrium modulus of approximately 200 kPa. Although this represents the highest modulus we have been able to achieve with MSC-seeded constructs using our culture system, further work remains to optimize MSC chondrogenesis for cartilage tissue engineering, particularly in terms of collagen content and dynamic mechanical properties.

High-throughput screening for modulators of mesenchymal stem cell chondrogenesis.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are an attractive cell source for regenerative medicine and the study of skeletal development. Despite considerable interest in MSC chondrogenesis, the signal transduction and molecular mechanisms underlying this process remain largely undefined. To explore the signaling topology regulating chondrogenic differentiation, as well as to discover novel modulators, we developed and validated a high-throughput screening (HTS) assay for MSC chondrogenesis. Adapting standard assay procedures to enable HTS, we successfully minimized cell number, handling, and culture duration. Using our optimized methodology with automation, we evaluated a comprehensive screen using four growth factors, TGF-beta3, BMP-2, IGF-1, and FGF-2, to demonstrate the feasibility of large combinatorial screens. We examined the chondrogenic effects of these growth factors in different combinations and doses (81 combinations total with 16 replicates per group) and found variable effects on GAG content with different combinations. In general, TGF-beta3 had a pro-chondrogenic effect while FGF-2 had a proliferative effect. BMP-2 was both proliferative and pro-chondrogenic while the effect of IGF-1 in our system was variable. We also carried out an HTS campaign of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) chemical library of small molecules (1040 compounds) and identified 5 potential inducers and 24 potential inhibitors of chondrogenesis. Of these compounds, several were identified from the hypnotic, anti-neoplastic, or anti-protein synthesis classes of molecules. These studies demonstrate our ability to carry out high-throughput screening assays for modulators of chondrogenesis.