Identification of New Mono/Dihydroxynaphthoquinone as Lead Agents That Inhibit the Growth of Refractive and Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Lines.

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is overexpressed in nearly 20-30% of breast cancers and is associated with metastasis resulting in poor patient survival and high recurrence. The dual EGFR/HER2 kinase inhibitor lapatinib has shown promising clinical results, but its limitations have also led to the resistance and activation of tumor survival pathways. Following our previous investigation of quinones as HER2 kinase inhibitors, we synthesized several naphthoquinone derivatives that significantly inhibited breast tumor cells expressing HER2 and trastuzumab-resistant HER2 oncogenic isoform, HER2Δ16. Two of these compounds were shown to be more effective than lapatinib at the inhibition of HER2 autophosphorylation of Y1248. Compounds 7 (5,8-dihydroxy-2-methylnaphthalene-1,4-dione) and 9 (2-(bromomethyl)-5,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-1,4-dione) inhibited HER2-expressing MCF-7 cells (IC50 0.29 and 1.76 µM, respectively) and HER2Δ16-expressing MCF-7 cells (IC50 0.51 and 1.76 µM, respectively). Compound 7 was also shown to promote cell death in multiple refractory breast cancer cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 0.12 to 2.92 µM. These compounds can function as lead compounds for the design of a new series of nonquinonoid structural compounds that can maintain a similar inhibition profile.

Small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors of ErbB2/HER2/Neu in the treatment of aggressive breast cancer.

The human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is a member of the erbB class of tyrosine kinase receptors. These proteins are normally expressed at the surface of healthy cells and play critical roles in the signal transduction cascade in a myriad of biochemical pathways responsible for cell growth and differentiation. However, it is widely known that amplification and subsequent overexpression of the HER2 encoding oncogene results in unregulated cell proliferation in an aggressive form of breast cancer known as HER2-positive breast cancer. Existing therapies such as trastuzumab (Herceptin®) and lapatinib (Tyverb/Tykerb®), a monoclonal antibody inhibitor and a dual EGFR/HER2 kinase inhibitor, respectively, are currently used in the treatment of HER2-positive cancers, although issues with high recurrence and acquired resistance still remain. Small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors provide attractive therapeutic targets, as they are able to block cell signaling associated with many of the proposed mechanisms for HER2 resistance. In this regard we aim to present a review on the available HER2 tyrosine kinase inhibitors, as well as those currently in development. The use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors as sequential or combinatorial therapeutic strategies with other HER family inhibitors is also discussed.

Identification of quinones as HER2 inhibitors for the treatment of trastuzumab resistant breast cancer.

HER2 overexpression is associated with aggressive breast cancer with high recurrence rate and poor patient prognosis. Treatment of HER2 overexpressing patients with the HER2 targeting therapy trastuzumab results in acquired resistance within a year. The HER2/EGFR dual kinase inhibitor lapatinib was shown to inhibit some trastuzumab resistant breast cancer cell lines and is currently in clinical trials. Our group has found two new quinone compounds that show excellent inhibition of breast tumor cells expressing HER2 or the trastuzumab resistant HER2 oncogenic isoform, HER2Δ16. Compound 4 ((1R,2S,3S)-1,2,3,5,8-pentahydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroanthracene-9,10-dione) and compound 5 (5,8-dihydroxy-2,3-bis(hydroxymethyl)naphthalene-1,4-dione) showed sub-micromolar inhibition potency against these cell lines. These compounds also inhibit auto-phosphorylation of the Y1248 and Y1068 residues of HER2 and EGFR, respectively.

Insights on cytochrome p450 enzymes and inhibitors obtained through QSAR studies.

The cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily of heme enzymes play an important role in the metabolism of a large number of endogenous and exogenous compounds, including most of the drugs currently on the market. Inhibitors of CYP enzymes have important roles in the treatment of several disease conditions such as numerous cancers and fungal infections in addition to their critical role in drug-drug interactions. Structure activity relationships (SAR), and three-dimensional quantitative structure activity relationships (3D-QSAR) represent important tools in understanding the interactions of the inhibitors with the active sites of the CYP enzymes. A comprehensive account of the QSAR studies on the major human CYPs 1A1, 1A2, 1B1, 2A6, 2B6, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, 2E1, 3A4 and a few other CYPs are detailed in this review which will provide us with an insight into the individual/common characteristics of the active sites of these enzymes and the enzyme-inhibitor interactions.

7-Ethynylcoumarins: selective inhibitors of human cytochrome P450s 1A1 and 1A2.

To discover new selective mechanism-based P450 inhibitors, eight 7-ethynylcoumarin derivatives were prepared through a facile two-step synthetic route. Cytochrome P450 activity assays indicated that introduction of functional groups in the backbone of coumarin could enhance the inhibition activities toward P450s 1A1 and 1A2, providing good selectivity against P450s 2A6 and 2B1. The most potent product 7-ethynyl-3,4,8-trimethylcoumarin (7ETMC) showed IC(50) values of 0.46 µM and 0.50 µM for P450s 1A1 and 1A2 in the first six minutes, respectively, and did not show any inhibition activity for P450s 2A6 and 2B1 even at the dose of 50 µM. All of the inhibitors except 7-ethynyl-3-methyl-4-phenylcoumarin (7E3M4PC) showed mechanism-based inhibition of P450s 1A1 and 1A2. In order to explain this mechanistic difference in inhibitory activities, X-ray crystallography data were used to study the difference in conformation between 7E3M4PC and the other compounds studied. Docking simulations indicated that the binding orientations and affinities resulted in different behaviors of the inhibitors on P450 1A2. Specifically, 7E3M4PC with its two-plane structure fits into the P450 1A2's active site cavity with an orientation leading to no reactive binding, causing it to act as a competitive inhibitor.

Development of flavone propargyl ethers as potent and selective inhibitors of cytochrome P450 enzymes 1A1 and 1A2.

Naturally occurring flavonoids are known to be metabolized by several cytochrome P450 enzymes including P450s 1A1, 1A2, 1B1, 2C9, 3A4, and 3A5. In general flavonoids can act as substrates, inducers, and/or inhibitors of P450 enzymes. The position of the substituents on the flavone backbone has been shown to impact the biological activity against P450 enzymes. To explore the effect of a propargyl ether substitution on flavones and flavanones, 2´-flavone propargyl ether (2´-PF), 3´-flavone propargyl ether (3´-PF), 4´-flavone propargyl ether (4´-PF), 5-flavone propargyl ether (5-PF), 6-flavone propargyl ether (6-PF), 7-flavone propargyl ether (7-PF), 6-flavanone propargyl ether (6-PFN), and 7- flavanone propargyl ether (7-PFN) were synthesized. All of the newly synthesized compounds and the parent hydroxy flavones were tested for both direct inhibition and mechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 enzymes 1A1, 1A2, 2A6, and 2B1. The flavone propargyl ether derivatives were found to be more potent inhibitors of P450s 1A1 and 1A2. None of the flavones and flavanones in our study showed any inhibition of P450 2A6. Only 2´-PF and 6-PFN inhibited P450 2B1. 3´-PF showed direct inhibition of P450 1A1 with the highest observed potency of 0.02 µM, in addition to its ability to cause mechanism-based inhibition with KI and kinactivation values of 0.24 µM and 0.09 min-1 for this enzyme. 7- Hydroxy flavone also exhibited mechanism-based inhibition of P450 1A1 with KI and kinactivation values of 2.43 µM and 0.115 min-1. Docking studies and QSAR studies on P450 enzymes 1A1 and 1A2 were performed which revealed important insights into the nature of binding of these molecules and provided us with good QSAR models that can be used to design new flavone derivatives.

Inhibition of cytochrome p450 enzymes by quinones and anthraquinones.

In silico docking studies and quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis of a number of in-house cytochrome P450 inhibitors have revealed important structural characteristics that are required for a molecule to function as a good inhibitor of P450 enzymes 1A1, 1A2, 2B1, and/or 2A6. These insights were incorporated into the design of pharmacophores used for a 2D search of the Chinese medicine database. Emodin, a natural anthraquinone isolated from Rheum emodi and known to be metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes, was one of the hits and was used as the lead compound. Emodin was found to inhibit P450s 1A1, 1A2, and 2B1 with IC(50) values of 12.25, 3.73, and 14.89 µM, respectively. On the basis of the emodin molecular structure, further similarity searches of the PubChem and ZINC chemical databases were conducted resulting in the identification of 12 emodin analogues for testing against P450s 1A1-, 1A2-, 2B1-, and 2A6-dependent activities. 1-Amino-4-chloro-2-methylanthracene-9,10-dione (compound 1) showed the best inhibition potency for P450 1A1 with an IC(50) value of 0.40 µM. 1-Amino-4-chloro-2-methylanthracene-9,10-dione (compound 1) and 1-amino-4-hydroxyanthracene-9,10-dione (compound 2) both inhibited P450 1A2 with the same IC(50) value of 0.53 µM. In addition, compound 1 acted as a mechanism-based inhibitor of cytochrome P450s 1A1 and 1A2 with K(I) and K(inactivation) values of 5.38 µM and 1.57 min(-1) for P450 1A1 and 0.50 µM and 0.08 min(-1) for P450 1A2. 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-5-hydroxynaphthalene-1,4-dione (compound 8) directly inhibited P450 2B1 with good selectivity and inhibition potency (IC(50) = 5.66 µM). Docking studies using the 3D structures of the enzymes were carried out on all of the compounds. The binding modes of these compounds revealed the structural characteristics responsible for their potency and selectivity. Compound 1, which is structurally similar to compound 2 with the presence of an amino group at position 1, showed a difference in the mechanism of inhibition toward P450s 1A1 and 1A2. The mechanism-based inhibition seen for compound 1 may be attributed to the presence of the methyl group at the 2-position, in close proximity to the amino group. Compound 2, which is otherwise similar, lacks that methyl moiety and did not show mechanism-based inhibition.

Sulfapyridine (polymorph III), sulfapyridine dioxane solvate, sulfapyridine tetrahydrofuran solvate and sulfapyridine piperidine solvate, all at 173 K.

The X-ray crystal structures of solvates of sulfapyridine have been determined to be conformational polymorphs. 4-Amino-N-(1,2-dihydropyridin-2-ylidene)benzenesulfonamide (polymorph III), C(11)H(11)N(3)O(2)S, (1), 4-amino-N-(1,2-dihydropyridin-2-ylidene)benzenesulfonamide 1,3-dioxane monosolvate, C(11)H(11)N(3)O(2)S·C(4)H(8)O(2), (2), and 4-amino-N-(1,2-dihydropyridin-2-ylidene)benzenesulfonamide tetrahydrofuran monosolvate, C(11)H(11)N(3)O(2)S·C(4)H(8)O, (3), crystallized as the imide form, while piperidin-1-ium 4-amino-N-(pyridin-2-yl)benzenesulfonamidate, C(5)H(12)N(+)·C(11)H(10)N(3)O(2)S(-), (4), crystallized as the piperidinium salt. The tetrahydrofuran and dioxane solvent molecules in their respective structures were disordered and were refined using a disorder model. Three-dimensional hydrogen-bonding networks exist in all structures between at least one sulfone O atom and the aniline N atom.

Ethynyl and Propynylpyrene Inhibitors of Cytochrome P450.

The single-crystal X-ray structures and in vivo activities of three aryl acetylenic inhibitors of cytochromes P450 1A1, 1A2, 2A6, and 2B1 have been determined and are reported herein. These are 1-ethynylpyrene, 1-propy-nylpyrene, and 4-propynylpyrene. To investigate electronic influences on the mechanism of enzyme inhibition, the experimental electron density distribution of 1-ethynylpy-rene has been determined using low-temperature X-ray diffraction measurements, and the resulting net atomic charges compared with various theoretical calculations. A total of 82,390 reflections were measured with Mo Kα radiation to a (sinθ/λ)(max) = 0.985 Å(-1). Averaging symmetry equivalent reflections yielded 8,889 unique reflections. A least squares refinement procedure was used in which multipole parameters were added to describe the distortions of the atomic electron distributions from spherical symmetry. A map of the model electron density distribution of 1-ethynylpyrene was obtained. Net atomic charges calculated from refined monopole population parameters yielded charges that showed that the terminal acetylenic carbon atom (C18) is more negative than the internal carbon (C17). Net atomic charges calculated by ab initio, density functional theory, and semi-empirical methods are consistent with this trend suggesting that the terminal acetylenic carbon atom is more likely to be the site of oxidation. This is consistent with the inhibition mechanism pathway that results in the formation of a reactive ketene intermediate. This is also consistent with assay results that determined that 1-ethynylpyrene acts as a mechanism-based inhibitor of P450s 1A1 and 1A2 and as a reversible inhibitor of P450 2B1. Crystallographic data: 1-ethynylpyrene, C(18)H(10), P2(1)/c, a = 14.571(2) Å, b = 3.9094(5) Å, c = 20.242(3) Å, ß = 105.042(2)°, V = 1,113.5(2) Å(3); 1-propynylpyrene, C(19)H(12), P2(1)/n, a = 8.970(2) Å, b = 10.136(1) Å, c = 14.080(3) Å, ß = 99.77(2)°, V = 1,261.5(4) Å(3); 4-propynylpyrene, C(19)H(12), Pbca, a = 9.904(1) Å, b = 13.174(2) Å, c = 19.401(1) Å, V = 2,531.4(5) Å(3).

In silico studies of polyaromatic hydrocarbon inhibitors of cytochrome P450 enzymes 1A1, 1A2, 2A6, and 2B1.

A computational study was undertaken to understand the nature of binding and the structural features that play a significant role in the binding of arylacetylene molecules to cytochrome P450 enzymes 1A1, 1A2, 2A6, and 2B1. Nine polycyclic arylacetylenes determined to be mechanism-based P450 enzyme inhibitors were studied. The lack of polar substituents in these compounds causes them to be incapable of hydrogen bonding to the polar protein residues. The four P450 enzymes of interest all have phenylalanine residues in the binding pocket for potential pi-pi interactions with the aromatic rings of the inhibitors. The inhibition potency of these arylacetylenes toward P450s 1A1 and 2B1 showed a dependence on the proximity of the inhibitor's triple bond to the prosthetic heme Fe of the enzyme. In P450 enzyme 1A2, the inhibitor's potency showed more dependence on the pi-pi interactions of the inhibitor's ring systems with the phenylalanine residues of the protein, with the proximity of the inhibitor triple bond to the heme Fe weighing in as the second most important factor. The results suggest that maximizing the pi-pi interactions with phenylalanine residues in the binding pocket and optimum proximity of the acetylene moiety to the heme Fe will provide for a substantial increase in the potency of the polyaromatic hydrocarbon mechanism-based inhibitors. A fine balance of these two aspects of binding coupled with attention to supplementing hydrophobic interactions could address potency and selectivity issues for these inhibitors.