From top to bottom: gridded human population estimates in data-poor situations.

Where disease risks are heterogeneous across population groups or space, or dependent on transmission between individuals, spatial data on population distributions - human, livestock and wildlife - are required to estimate infectious disease risks, burdens and dynamics. As a result, large-scale, spatially explicit, high-resolution human population data are being increasingly used in a wide range of animal- and public-health planning and policy development scenarios. Official census data, aggregated by administrative unit, provide the only complete enumeration of a country's population. While census data from developed countries are generally up-to-date and of high quality, in resource-poor settings they are often incomplete, out of date, or only available at the country or province level. The challenges associated with producing accurate population estimates in regions that lack high-quality census data have led to the development of census-independent approaches to small-area population estimations. Known as bottom-up models, as opposed to the census-based top-down approaches, these methods combine microcensus survey data with ancillary data to provide spatially disaggregated population estimates in the absence of national census data. This review highlights the need for high-resolution gridded population data, discusses problems associated with using census data as top-down model inputs, and explores census-independent, or bottom-up, methods of producing spatially explicit, high-resolution gridded population data, together with their advantages.

Dans les contextes où les risques de maladie sont hétérogènes et dépendent du groupe de population ou du territoire dont il s'agit, ou des probabilités de transmission entre individus, il est nécessaire de disposer de données spatiales sur la distribution des populations (couvrant la population humaine et les populations d'animaux d'élevage et sauvages) afin d'être en mesure d'évaluer les risques de maladie infectieuse, de calculer le fardeau qu'elles représentent et de mettre en lumière les dynamiques à l'oeuvre. En conséquence, il est fait de plus en plus souvent appel à des données spatialement explicites, à grande échelle et à haute résolution pour construire les scénarios utilisés à des fins de planification et d'élaboration des politiques de santé animale et de santé publique. Les données officielles de recensement agrégées par unité administrative constituent la seule énumération complète de la population d'un pays. Si dans les pays développés ces données de recensement sont généralement actualisées et de bonne qualité, dans les configurations moins dotées en ressources elles sont souvent incomplètes, obsolètes ou n'existent qu'à l'échelle nationale ou provinciale. Les difficultés rencontrées pour produire des estimations suffisamment exactes dans les régions dépourvues de données de recensement de bonne qualité ont conduit à élaborer des méthodes visant à estimer la population de territoires limités, sans passer par le recensement. Ces modèles, qualifiés d'" ascendants " par opposition aux modèles de recensement " descendants ", associent aux données issues d'opérations de micro-recensement un certain nombre de données complémentaires afin de fournir des estimations de population ventilées par territoires, en l'absence de données nationales de recensement. Dans cet article, l'auteure souligne l'importance de disposer de données maillées de population à haute résolution ; après avoir examiné les problèmes associés à l'utilisation des résultats des modèles descendants, elle décrit les méthodes ascendantes non basées sur le recensement et leur capacité à fournir des données maillées de population spatialement explicites et à haute résolution. Elle conclut sur les avantages de ces dernières méthodes.

En circunstancias en que el riesgo de enfermedad varía según el grupo de población o el espacio de que se trate o en que dicho riesgo depende de la transmisión entre individuos, es necesario disponer de datos espaciales sobre la distribución de poblaciones (ya sean humanas, ganaderas o de animales salvajes) para calcular el riesgo y determinar la carga y la dinámica de una enfermedad infecciosa. De ahí que en muy diversas situaciones en las que se elaboran planes o políticas de sanidad animal o salud pública se vengan utilizando, cada vez más, conjuntos de datos a gran escala y alta resolución referidos expresamente a la población humana de un determinado ámbito geográfico. Los datos del censo oficial, agregados por unidad administrativa, ofrecen el único recuento completo de la población de un país. No obstante, si bien los datos censales de países desarrollados suelen estar al día y ser de buena calidad, en condiciones de escasez de recursos esos datos tienden a ser incompletos, estar obsoletos o existir únicamente a nivel de país o de provincia. La dificultad de obtener estimaciones poblacionales exactas en regiones donde no hay datos censales de buena calidad ha llevado a concebir métodos que no dependan del censo para realizar cálculos referidos a la población de pequeños territorios. Estos métodos, llamados modelos "ascendentes", por oposición a los planteamientos "descendentes" basados en el censo, permiten subsanar la falta de datos censales nacionales combinando datos de encuestas microcensales con otros datos complementarios para obtener estimaciones poblacionales desglosadas por espacio geográfico. La autora, tras subrayar la necesidad de disponer de cuadrículas de población de alta resolución, explica los problemas derivados del uso de datos censales como fuente de información en los modelos "descendentes" y expone métodos no dependientes del censo, o "ascendentes", para elaborar cuadrículas de población de alta resolución referidas expresamente a un espacio geográfico, así como las ventajas que ofrecen estos métodos.

How much is that doodle in the window? Exploring motivations and behaviours of UK owners acquiring designer crossbreed dogs (2019-2020).

BACKGROUND: Demand for intentional crosses of purebred dog breeds, often labelled 'designer crossbreeds' (e.g., Labrador Retriever X Poodle, the 'Labradoodle'), has recently increased in the UK. This study aimed to explore this phenomenon by comparing pre-purchase motivations, pre-purchase and purchase behaviours of UK owners of designer crossbred puppies purchased during 2019-2020 with those of owners of purebred puppies purchased during the same period. RESULTS: Data were collected in an online cross-sectional survey between November-December 2020. Responses from n = 6293 puppies (designer crossbred puppies: n = 1575; purebred puppies: n = 4718) were analysed. Perceived hypoallergenicity was cited as a motivator for breed/crossbreed choice by almost half of designer crossbreed owners (47.1%), six times more than purebred dog owners (7.86%; odds ratio [OR]: 9.12, 95% CI: 7.70-10.8). Designer crossbred puppies were more likely to have been acquired via a general selling website (e.g., Gumtree; 13.8%) compared to purebred puppies (7.67%; OR: 2.19, 95% CI: 1.77-2.71), or an animal-specific selling websites (e.g., Pets4Homes; 55.7%) compared to purebred puppies (37.4%; OR: 1.89, 95% CI: 1.65-2.17). Designer crossbreed owners were less likely to see their puppy in person prior to purchase than purebred owners (60.4% vs. 67.0%, respectively; OR: 0.74, 95% CI: 0.64-0.85), and at purchase, designer crossbred puppies were less likely to be seen with their mother (73.1% vs. 79.8%, respectively; OR: 0.82, 95% CI: 0.70-0.95), and littermates (67.7% vs. 78.1%, respectively; OR: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.55-0.73). Designer crossbreeds had a significantly higher purchase price, with 25.7% of designer crossbreed puppies costing £2000-£2999 compared to 15.1% of purebred puppies (X2 = 207.31, p <  0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The recent boom in designer crossbreeds in the UK has been fuelled by a desire for perceived hypoallergenic and generally healthy dogs that fit the lifestyles of households with children and limited experience with dogs. Some sought-after traits in designer crossbreeds are misconceptions that risk canine welfare, including relinquishment risk, if owner expectations are not met. Purchasing practices fuelling this boom support irresponsible breeding and selling practices, which combined with reduced pressure for health testing from buyers, may result in a higher disease burden and poorer future welfare for this growing designer dog population.

Spatio-temporal distribution and agroecological factors associated with canine leptospirosis in Great Britain.

Leptospirosis is an important global zoonotic disease that affects a wide range of mammalian species. Canine leptospirosis outbreaks have been reported after metereological events such as flooding (eg. in Brazil and the United States of America) suggesting an environmental association, but there has been no such study in Great Britain (GB). The distribution of cases across GB is also unreported. Objectives of this study were to: (1) assess the spatio-temporal variation of leptospirosis test submissions (2) explore associations between agroecological risk factors and distribution of different canine leptospirosis serogroups in GB, and (3) generate probability of presence maps for the different serogroups. Data analysed comprised laboratory submissions (n = 3986) to IDEXX laboratories between 1st January 2009 and 31st December 2018 for PCR or MAT leptospirosis testing. Spatial and seasonal scan statistics were used to investigate spatial and temporal clustering of positive tests, logistic regression was used to identify significant agroecological risk factors for positive tests, and the Maxent algorithm was used to model the environmental niche of four serogroups. There was an increased risk of a positive test result in the West Midlands of England (relative risk = 2.16) and between October and January (relative risk = 1.54). Logistic regression identified season and region to be significantly associated with a positive diagnosis,with higher odds of a positive test in Autumn (OR = 1.86 95 %CI 1.29-2.69) and Winter (OR = 1.51, 95 %CI 1.02-2.23) and in the East (OR = 2.20, 95 %CI = 1.31-3.71) and West Midlands (OR = 2.32, 95 %CI 1.45-3.71). The increased test-positive proportion in Autumn together with the increased odds of a positive diagnosis in Autumn suggests there may be a seasonal pattern to the canine leptospirosis in GB. The most important variable associated with higher leptospirosis presence in all ecological niche models was higher average annual temperature. The importance and retention of other variables differed between serogroups. Overall, a higher probability of leptospirosis presence was predicted in southern England and a low probability in Scotland and northern England. Although leptospirosis vaccine usage provides protection against the majority of serogroups identified here, one is not represented in the currently licensed vaccine formulations and therefore leptospirosis should remain a differential diagnosis in vaccinated dogs demonstrating consistent clinical signs of the disease.

Pathology and Epidemiology of Cutaneous and Renal Glomerular Vasculopathy in Dogs.

Cutaneous and renal glomerular vasculopathy (CRGV) has been recognized as a potentially life-threatening condition of dogs in the UK since 2012, although there was a single (non-azotaemic) case reported in the UK in 2000. Prior to that, CRGV was recognized in the 1980s in southern USA as a disease affecting solely racing greyhounds (which gave rise to the colloquial name of 'Alabama rot'). CRGV manifests as ulcerative skin lesions, generally sparing the dorsum. It is variably associated with systemic signs including anaemia, thrombocytopenia and acute kidney injury, which, when it develops, is often severe and fatal. CRGV is characterized histopathologically as a thrombotic microangiopathy. To date in the UK, more than 230 dogs of varying breed and age have been humanely destroyed and histopathologically confirmed to be suffering from CRGV. The aetiology remains unknown, but the seasonal distribution (highest case incidence November-May each year) suggests that environmental or climatic factors may play a role in disease development. Further research to determine the aetiology and improve ante-mortem diagnostic testing, therapeutic options and preventive strategies is urgently needed.

Geographic distribution and environmental risk factors of lymphoma in dogs under primary-care in the UK.

OBJECTIVES: To integrate external data sources with VetCompass postcode data to explore the spatial distribution and examine potential associations with environmental risk factors in dogs diagnosed with lymphoma at primary care veterinary practices. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cases of lymphoma were identified from electronic patient records of 455,553 dogs under primary veterinary care during 2013 in the UK. Cases were defined as either laboratory-confirmed or non-laboratory-confirmed. Disease maps at the postcode-district level were used to define the geographic distribution of lymphoma incidence and spatial clustering was explored. Environmental risk factors from external data sources were transferred to a compatible format and logistic regression modelling was used to examine associations between environmental herbicide, fungicide and radon concentrations with lymphoma. RESULTS: From the denominator population of 455,553 dogs, 279 lymphoma cases (187 with laboratory confirmation and 93 without) were identified. Heterogeneous geographic variation was observed with weak evidence of clustering around London and the south-west of England. Herbicide and fungicide exposures were weakly associated with a diagnosis of lymphoma in the univariable analysis. After accounting for the age at diagnosis and breed in the multivariable analysis, herbicide exposure was associated with a diagnosis of lymphoma. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The heterogeneous distribution of lymphoma in UK dogs provides further evidence for geographic variation of lymphoma, perhaps in part associated with underlying environmental risk factors. The results suggest an association between environmental herbicide and canine lymphoma.

Spatial analysis and identification of environmental risk factors affecting the distribution of Indoplanorbis and Lymnaea species in semi-arid and irrigated areas of Haryana, India.

Fasciolosis, amphistomosis and schistosomosis, transmitted by the freshwater snail species Indoplanorbis and Lymnaea, are important snail-borne diseases in India as they affect the entire spectrum of domestic animals causing substantial mortality and economic loss. Identifying any heterogeneity in the spatial distribution of these snail-borne diseases will allow for targeted disease control and efficient use of resources. The objectives of this study were threefold: (i) to describe and explore the spatial distribution of Indoplanorbis and Lymnaea in Rohtak and Jhajjar districts of Haryana, India (ii) to identify factors associated with occurrence of these freshwater snail species and (iii) to produce a map showing the predicted risk of occurrence of Lymnaea and Indoplanorbis spp. in the study area. Snails were collected from water bodies of 99 settlements out of a total of 453 in the study area. Kernel smoothing was used to generate a kernel ratio map while Kulldorff's spatial scan statistic was used to detect clusters of settlements with a high/low risk. Multivariable logistic regression showed that snails were almost ten times more likely to be present in rice-growing areas than in those not growing rice (OR 9.24) and that snails were less likely to be present with each 1 km increase in distance from a canal (OR 0.86). The regression model was used to produce a map illustrating the predicted risk of snail occurrence. Since the distribution of vector snails mirrors the distribution of snail-borne parasitic diseases, such spatial analysis helps to determine the relative risk of snail-infestation as well as snail-borne diseases' distribution and planning of control activities.

Identification of potential risk factors associated with highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 outbreak occurrence in Lagos and Kano States, Nigeria, during the 2006-2007 epidemics.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza HPAI H5N1 was first reported in Africa in 2006, in Nigeria. The country experienced severe outbreaks in 2006 and 2007, strongly affecting the poultry population. Current knowledge on potential risk factors for HPAI H5N1 occurrence in poultry farms in Nigeria is limited. Therefore, we conducted a case-control study to identify potential farm-level risk factors for HPAI H5N1 occurrence in two areas of the country that were affected by the disease in 2006 and 2007, namely the States of Lagos and Kano. A case-control study was conducted at the farm level. A convenience sample of 110 farms was surveyed. Data on farm characteristics, farm management and trade practices were collected. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with farms that confirmed positive for HPAI. Having a neighbouring poultry farm was identified as a potential risk factor for disease occurrence [OR, 5.23; 95% CI, (0.88-30.97); P-value = 0.048]. Farm staff washing their hands before handling birds was a protective factor [OR, 0.14; 95% CI, (0.05-0.37); P-value <0.001], as well as not allowing traders to enter the farm [OR, 0.23; 95% CI, (0.08-0.70); P-value = 0.008]. Our study highlighted the importance of trade and proximity between poultry farms in the epidemiology of HPAI H5N1 and the role of biosecurity in disease prevention in Kano and Lagos States. Despite the limitations owing to the sampling strategy, these results are consistent with other risk factor studies previously conducted on HPAI H5N1 in both Africa and other regions, suggesting similar risk factor patterns for HPAI H5N1 virus spread and substantiating current knowledge regarding the epidemiology of the disease. Finally, this study generated information from areas where data are difficult to obtain.

Repeatability and reproducibility of the Obel grading system for equine laminitis.

The aim of this study was to evaluate both the repeatability (intraobserver agreement) and reproducibility (interobserver agreement) of Obel grading, the most widely accepted method for describing the severity of equine laminitis. The study comprised two parts. In study A, to test intraobserver agreement, 25 ponies were graded twice by a single blinded experienced equine veterinary surgeon, on the first occasion via clinical examination and on the second occasion via a video recording of the initial clinical examination. In study B, to test interobserver agreement, video recordings of 13 ponies were graded independently by 58 blinded experienced equine veterinary surgeons. A weighted kappa (kappa(w)) statistic was used to determine the measure of agreement between gradings. Intraobserver agreement of Obel grading was shown to be moderate (kappa(w)=0.54), and interobserver agreement was found to be substantial (kappa(w)=0.65). In addition, intraobserver agreement improved from moderate to substantial (kappa(w) increased from 0.54 to 0.70) when the Obel grades were grouped and horses were categorised as either sound, or as having mild (grade 1 or 2) or severe (grade 3 or 4) lameness.

Factors contributing to the contamination of peripheral intravenous catheters in dogs and cats.

The aim of this study was to identify factors that contribute significantly to the bacterial contamination of peripheral intravenous catheters in dogs and cats. Between January and June 2005, intravenous catheters were removed from 84 dogs and 15 cats at the Queen Mother Hospital for Animals, Royal Veterinary College. None of the factors under consideration was significantly associated with bacterial contamination, but 42.9 per cent of the animals with clinical signs consistent with a peripheral catheter-related infection, 34.8 per cent of the animals in which blood had been collected from the catheter immediately after its insertion, and 21.1 per cent of the animals in which a T-connector rather than a Y-connector had been used had contaminated cannulae, compared with 19.0 per cent, 19.7 per cent and 8.3 per cent, respectively, of the animals that did not have signs of such an infection, from which blood was not taken immediately, and that had a Y-connector rather than a T-connector. Binary logistic regression showed that the animals with clinical signs of a catheter-related infection were 10 times more likely to have a contaminated catheter (odds ratio [OR] 10.9, 95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 0.89 to 134) and the animals fitted with Y-connectors rather than T-connectors were 10 times less likely to have a contaminated catheter (OR 0.10, 95 per cent CI 0.008 to 1.25).

Farm-level factors associated with above-average production on pig farms in Evia, Greece.

The aim of this study was to identify farm-level factors associated with above-average production of pig farms in Evia, Greece. Cross-sectional data on pig farm characteristics and management, farmer characteristics, worming practices, anthelmintics used, and the parasite loads of 10 randomly selected boars, sows, weaners, and fatteners were collected from 28 pig enterprises in the Evian region of Greece (74% of the total number of pig enterprises in this region). Above-average productivity was defined as weaning 18 or more piglets per sow per year. A multivariate logistic regression model found that employing immigrant workers reduced the odds of a farm being an above-average producer (OR 0.016, 95% CI 0.001-0.27), while having a veterinarian select the anthelmintic strategy significantly increased the odds of a farm being an above-average producer (OR 10.24, 95% CI 0.78-135.13). None of the gastrointestinal parasites under investigation were significantly associated with above-average productivity. It is concluded that despite the fact that endoparasite load was not significantly associated with above-average production, a quantification of the impact of intestinal worms on pig productivity is needed to know how much control can be envisaged for gastrointestinal worms before reaching the threshold at which it is no longer physically or financially reasonable to continue pursuing control.

Effect of left-sided valvular regurgitation on mortality and causes of death among a population of middle-aged and older horses.

The effect of left-sided valvular regurgitation (LSVR) on the mortality of middle-aged and older horses was investigated in a prospective cohort study involving 19 yards and 1153 horses. The horses were examined to determine whether they had a cardiac murmur and its type, and their age, sex, breed type and occupation were recorded. They were followed up at intervals of two years by postal questionnaire, and after four years information on 773 horses was available. There was no significant difference in the mortality of the horses with and without LSVR, but small horses had a significantly higher risk of having LSVR than small ponies (odds ratio [OR] 2.33), and older horses were slightly more likely to have LSVR than young horses (OR 1.07). Twenty-nine per cent of the deaths reported by the owners were due to orthopaedic problems, 23.3 per cent to gastrointestinal problems, and only 7.9 per cent to cardiovascular problems. Orthopaedic problems were the main cause of death in the horses, and gastrointestinal problems were the main cause of death in the ponies.

Changes in the glomerular filtration rate of 27 cats with hyperthyroidism after treatment with radioactive iodine.

Hyperthyroidism is a common endocrinopathy of older cats and is associated with an increased glomerular filtration rate (gfr). Renal dysfunction is also common in older cats and may develop after they have been treated for hyperthyroidism. This paper describes the changes in the gfr of 27 hyperthyroid cats in the six months after their treatment with radioactive iodine ((131)I), and evaluates whether any commonly measured pretreatment parameters (serum biochemistry, systolic blood pressure, urine specific gravity) could predict a clinically significant decline in renal function. The gfr of all the cats had decreased one month after treatment, and the mean gfr was significantly lower. There was no further significant change in gfr between one and six months. The only independent variable associated with the final gfr was the pretreatment plasma glucose concentration (P=0.003).

Influence of dipping practices on the seroprevalence of babesiosis and anaplasmosis in the foot-and-mouth disease buffer zone adjoining the Kruger National Park in South Africa.

A serological survey of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis was conducted in the foot-and-mouth disease buffer zone surrounding the Kruger National Park in South Africa between 2001 and 2003 to determine whether the withdrawal of government-subsidized dipping in certain regions had affected the seroprevalence of these tick-borne diseases. Seroprevalence of Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bovis increased during the study period. This increase was greater in Limpopo Province where farmers had to supply their own acaricide than in Mpumalanga Province where dipping materials were provided by the local Veterinary Services. The number of animals testing positive for B. bigemina decreased in both provinces during the study period, which was attributed to possible vector displacement rather than more effective tick control measures. Responses to a questionnaire on ticks and tick-borne diseases revealed local knowledge on the subject to be highly variable and sometimes incorrect.

Characteristics of commercial pig farms in Great Britain and their use of antimicrobials.

A mail survey of 1889 pig producers in Great Britain with more than 100 sows or more than 1000 pigs was carried out to investigate their use of antimicrobials and other health-related management practices. The response rate was 25.5 per cent. Antimicrobials were most commonly administered in feed. Depending on the production system, between 60 and 75 per cent of the farms had used antimicrobials in their weaner rations and 20 to 62 per cent had used them in their grower rations. Antimicrobial injections had been used on 59 per cent of the farms. The use of antimicrobials in pigs of different age groups was variously associated with the scale of production, membership of a quality assurance scheme, the use of vaccination and whether the farmer thought the farm environment could be improved. Half the respondents (49 per cent) indicated that they used growth promoters in their weaners, but fewer used these in their growers (45 per cent) and finishers (34 per cent). Although 63 per cent of the farmers felt that the continued use of antimicrobials for disease prevention was justified, only 21 per cent felt that their continued use as growth promoters was justified.

Factors associated with the wastage and achievements in competition of event horses registered in the United Kingdom.

The aims of this study were to estimate the wastage of horses registered for eventing in Britain, to investigate the reasons for this wastage and to evaluate factors affecting the horses' achievement of grade I status (at least 61 points) while registered. An analysis of the database of the British Eventing register found that 33.7 per cent of horses registered for the first time in 1999 were not re-registered for eventing in subsequent years. By using multivariable logistic regression analysis, it was shown that horses that were kept at an event yard were more likely to be re-registered than those kept on other premises (odds ratio [or] 2.0, 95 per cent confidence interval [ci] 1.2 to 3.2), and those that took part in showjumping while registered were also more likely to be re-registered (or 1.5, 95 per cent ci 1.1 to 2.2). Horses that took part in unaffiliated eventing while registered were less likely to be re-registered the following year (or 0.7, 95 per cent ci 0.5 to 0.9), as were those that were not insured (or 0.7, 95 per cent ci 0.5 to 1.0) and those from outside the British Isles (or 0.6, 95 per cent ci 0.3 to 1.0). Veterinary problems were the most commonly cited explanation (35.1 per cent) why horses that remained in their original ownership were not re-registered with British Eventing the following year. Horses from Australia were more likely to achieve grade I status than horses from the British Isles (or 9.7, 95 per cent ci 7.1 to 13.2), as were horses from New Zealand (or 6.4, 95 per cent ci 5.0 to 8.2), the usa (or 5.2, 95 per cent ci 3.8 to 7.2) and France (or 2.8, 95 per cent ci 2.1 to 3.7), but horses from the Netherlands (or 0.5, 95 per cent ci 0.3 to 0.9) and Belgium (or 0.3, 95 per cent ci 0.1 to 0.9) were less likely to achieve grade I status. Mares were less likely to achieve grade I status than geldings (or 0.4, 95 per cent ci 0.4 to 0.5).

Clinical and clinicopathological changes in 6 healthy ponies following intramuscular administration of multiple doses of imidocarb dipropionate.

Haematological variables and selected serum indices, particularly those affected by changes in renal and hepatic function, were examined in 6 healthy ponies following 4 intramuscular doses of 4 mg/kg imidocarb dipropionate administered every 72 hours. This treatment regime has been reported to sterilise experimental Babesia equi infections in horses and may have value in preventing the spread of this disease during exportation of possible carrier horses to non-endemic countries. Serum bile acids and serum gamma glutamyltransferase activity were measured to evaluate the effect of this treatment regime on hepatic function. Owing to the absence of any increase in these variables it was concluded that this treatment regime had no clinically detectable deleterious effect on hepatic function in healthy ponies. Urinary gamma glutamyltransferase : creatinine ratios (IU/g), serum creatinine and fractional clearance of sodium, potassium and phosphate (%) were calculated as a measure of renal function. Urinary GGT and urinary GGT : creatinine ratios were significantly elevated on Day 5 of the trial, with 2 of the trial animals also exhibiting mild azotaemia indicative of changes in renal function. The changes in urine GGT : urine creatinine ratios observed in this study also provides evidence of the value of this ratio for the early detection of renal toxicity, following exposure to nephrotoxic agents.

Equine hepatic disease: the effect of patient- and case-specific variables on risk and prognosis.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Liver disease is fairly common in horses and, although previous literature suggests that fatality rates are high, impressions gained from current clinical practice suggest that this is no longer the case. OBJECTIVES: A case-control study was undertaken in 2 hospitals to investigate whether age, gender or breed type predisposed horses to developing hepatic disease, with the additional aim of determining whether these factors and disease category had any effect on outcome. METHODS: Eighty-eight cases were identified by review of computerised archives at 2 hospitals. Three cases admitted immediately before and after the cases were used as controls. Multivariant models were developed to explore the relationship between age, breed type and gender and the development of liver disease, and within the clinical cases, to identify whether any of these factors or specific forms of liver disease were associated with fatality rate. RESULTS: Ponies were more likely to develop hepatic disease than light riding horses, but neither age nor gender were significant risk factors. Overall, the fatality rate was fairly low; horses with unclassified hepatopathies had the lowest fatality rate and those with cholangiohepatitis, pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicity and chronic active hepatitis had significantly higher fatality rates in comparison. However, age, breed type and gender had no detectable effect on outcome. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Such data could be of particular value to equine practitioners, as the cases were drawn from both primary and referral practice, and were all seen within the last 5 years.

Adult reading assessment: are we doing the best with what we have?

This article describes a survey completed by 728 neuropsychologists for the purpose of gathering information about the assessment of reading in adults as part of neuropsychological examinations. The survey information gathered addressed (a) the general frequency of assessing adult reading, (b) the assessment tools used, (c) the general purposes for the assessment of reading, (d) the need for a review describing available adult reading norm-referenced tests, and (e) the need for the development of criterion-referenced reading tests appropriate for determining functional reading abilities. Survey findings are reported and discussed. A list and description of reading tests appropriate for assessing reading in adults also is provided in the Appendix.

The circumstances surrounding the outbreak and spread of equine influenza in South Africa.

Equine-2 influenza A virus (H3N8) infection first occurred among naïve horses in South Africa in December 1986. The virus was introduced following the importation of six horses from the United States of America. While the release of in-contact horses from quarantine three days after the arrival of these six horses played a role in the rapid spread of the disease in South Africa, other outbreaks of disease were associated with viral introduction by personnel or contaminated instruments. The control measures and implications of the introduction of equine influenza to South Africa are also discussed.