Does stimulating various coping strategies alleviate loneliness? Results from an online friendship enrichment program.

Loneliness stems from a mismatch between the social relationships one has and those one desires. Loneliness often has severe consequences for individuals and society. Recently, an online adaptation of the friendship enrichment program (FEP) was developed and tested to gain insight in its contribution to the alleviation of loneliness. Three loneliness coping strategies are introduced during the program: network development, adapting relationship standards, and reducing the importance of the discrepancy between actual and desired relationships. Data were collected among 239 participants aged 50-86. Loneliness was measured four times using a multi-item scale, and on various days with a single, direct question. Loneliness assessed with the scale declined during and after the program. Scores on loneliness assessed for a specific day, however, are more ambiguous. Despite the immediate positive effect of conducting assignments, we did not observe a decline in the single loneliness item score over the course of the program. The online FEP seems to reduce loneliness in general, but these effects are not visible on today's loneliness. Nevertheless, the online intervention to reduce loneliness is a valuable new contribution to the collection of loneliness interventions.

A latent class analysis of friendship network types and their predictors in the second half of life.

OBJECTIVES: Friendships contribute uniquely to well-being in (late) adulthood. However, studies on friendship often ignore interindividual differences in friendship patterns. The aim of this study was to investigate such differences including their predictors. METHOD: The study builds on Matthews's qualitative model of friendship styles. Matthews distinguished 3 approaches to friendship differing by number of friends, duration of friendships, and emotional closeness. We used latent class analysis to identify friendship network types in a sample of middle-aged and older adults aged 40-85 years (N = 1,876). Data came from the German Aging Survey (DEAS). RESULTS: Our analysis revealed 4 distinct friendship network types that were in high congruence with Matthews's typology. We identified these as a discerning style, which focuses on few close relationships, an independent style, which refrains from close engagements, and 2 acquisitive styles that both acquire new friends across their whole life course but differ regarding the emotional closeness of their friendships. Socioeconomic status, gender, health, and network-disturbing and network-sustaining variables predicted affiliations with network types. DISCUSSION: We argue that future studies should consider a holistic view of friendships in order to better understand the association between friendships and well-being in the second half of life.

Promotion of self-management in friendship.

This study examines changes in self management abilities among women in a friendship enrichment programme. The study is based on the theory of self management of well-being which identifies relevant self-management skills as self-efficacy, taking initiative, investment behaviour and attaining variety in resources. An intervention group (N = 60) and a control group (N = 55) were studied at a baseline, three months and nine months later. Results indicate that the programme is effective in stimulating two of the four self-management abilities. Compared to the control group, participants in the intervention showed greater increases in initiative taking and more investment behaviour in friendship. There was no change in self-efficacy or variety in friendship. We conclude that older adult women are able to improve some self-management abilities in friendship after participating in this programme. Important goals for future studies are to improve the measurement of self-efficacy and relate improvement in self-management to subjective well-being.

Meeting the need to belong: predicting effects of a friendship enrichment program for older women.

PURPOSE: This study explores the effects of participation in a program designed to enrich friendship and reduce loneliness among women in later life. Several hypotheses based on the need to belong, socioemotional selectivity theory, and the social compensation model were tested. DESIGN AND METHODS: Study 1 involved two measurement points, one at the end of the program and the other 1-year later. Study 2 used a pretest-post-test control group design with a follow-up measurement. A combination of semistructured interviews and structured questionnaires was used to collect data. A comparison group was also drawn from a nationwide representative sample. RESULTS: Participants were characterized by deprivation on the need to belong; that is, loss of a partner, higher levels of loneliness and negative affect, and lower positive affect compared with a nationwide representative sample of same-aged women. Participants were more likely than women in a control group to report the development of new friendships and an improvement in friendship. The combination of new and improved friendships contributed to a significant reduction in loneliness within a year. There was no evidence of satiation of the need to belong among those who did not expand or improve friendships. Loss of a partner had no influence on friendship development; however, age did. Older participants were less likely to improve friendships. IMPLICATIONS: The action-oriented approach that focused on friendship development in this intervention might be applied to other goals considered important in later life (optimal health, autonomy, harmonious family relations).