Rural-urban differences in use of health services before and after dementia diagnosis: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Rural-urban differences in health service use among persons with prevalent dementia are known. However, the extent of geographic differences in health service use over a long observation period, and prior to diagnosis, have not been sufficiently examined. The purpose of this study was to examine yearly rural-urban differences in the proportion of patients using health services, and the mean number of services, in the 5-year period before and 5-year period after a first diagnosis of dementia. METHODS: This population-based retrospective cohort study used linked administrative health data from the Canadian province of Saskatchewan to investigate the use of five health services [family physician (FP), specialist physician, hospital admission, all-type prescription drug dispensations, and short-term institutional care admission] each year from April 2008 to March 2019. Persons with dementia included 2,024 adults aged 65 years and older diagnosed from 1 April 2013 to 31 March 2014 (617 rural; 1,407 urban). Matching was performed 1:1 to persons without dementia on age group, sex, rural versus urban residence, geographic region, and comorbidity. Differences between rural and urban persons within the dementia and control cohorts were separately identified using the Z-score test for proportions (p < 0.05) and independent samples t-test for means (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Rural compared to urban persons with dementia had a lower average number of FP visits during 1-year and 2-year preindex and between 2-year and 4-year postindex (p < 0.05), a lower likelihood of at least one specialist visit and a lower average number of specialist visits during each year (p < 0.05), and a lower average number of all-type prescription drug dispensations for most of the 10-year study period (p < 0.05). Rural-urban differences were not observed in admission to hospital or short-term institutional care (p > 0.05 each year). CONCLUSIONS: This study identified important geographic differences in physician services and all-type prescription drugs before and after dementia diagnosis. Health system planners and educators must determine how to use existing resources and technological advances to support care for rural persons living with dementia.

'Staying strong': A constructivist grounded theory of how registered nurses deal with the impact of trauma-related events in rural acute care practice.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: This study explored how Registered Nurses (RNs) in rural practice deal with psychologically traumatic events when living and working in the same rural community over time. BACKGROUND: Rural RNs who are exposed to trauma may be at high risk for psychological distress (e.g. secondary traumatic stress, vicarious trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder), in the context of isolated practice and slower emergency response times. DESIGN AND METHODS: Charmaz's constructivist grounded theory methodology was chosen for this qualitative study. Purposeful sampling was used to recruit 19 RNs from six rural acute care hospitals. A total of 33 interviews were conducted with 19 face-to-face initial interviews, 14 follow-up telephone interviews and 14 reflective journals. Adherence to the COREQ EQUATOR guidelines was maintained. RESULTS: Participants were exposed to a multitude of trauma-related events, with their main concern of being intertwined with events for life. They dealt with this by staying strong, which included relying upon others, seeking inner strength, attempting to leave the past behind and experiencing transformational change over time. Being embedded in the community left them linked with these trauma-related events for life. Staying strong was a crucial element to their ability to cope and to face future events. CONCLUSIONS: The psychological implications of trauma-related events when working and living in rural acute care practice settings are significant and complex. Findings highlight the need for organizational support and processes and may contribute to improved psychological services and management practices. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Key learnings were that rural nurses, who live and work in the same community, experience psychological changes over time from traumatic events that stay with them for life; employers fail to recognise the seriousness of this issue and trauma-informed policies with associated resources are lacking.

Health service use before and after dementia diagnosis: a retrospective matched case-control study.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated patterns in health service usage among older adults with dementia and matched controls over a 10-year span from 5 years before until 5 years after diagnosis. DESIGN: Population-based retrospective matched case-control study. SETTING: Administrative health data of individuals in Saskatchewan, Canada from 1 April 2008 to 31 March 2019. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 2024 adults aged 65 years and older living in the community at the time of dementia diagnosis from 1 April 2013 to 31 March 2014, matched 1:1 to individuals without a dementia diagnosis on age group, sex, rural versus urban residence, geographical region and comorbidity. OUTCOME MEASURES: For each 5-year period before and after diagnosis, we examined usage of health services each year including family physician (FP) visits, specialist visits, hospital admissions, all-type prescription drug dispensations and short-term care admissions. We used negative binomial regression to estimate the effect of dementia on yearly average health service utilisation adjusting for sex, age group, rural versus urban residence, geographical region, 1 year prior health service use and comorbidity. RESULTS: Adjusted findings demonstrated that 5 years before diagnosis, usage of all health services except hospitalisation was lower among persons with dementia than persons without dementia (all p<0.001). After this point, differences in higher health service usage among persons with dementia compared to without dementia were greatest in the year before and year after diagnosis. In the year before diagnosis, specialist visits were 59.7% higher (p<0.001) and hospitalisations 90.5% higher (p<0.001). In the year after diagnosis, FP visits were 70.0% higher (p<0.001) and all-type drug prescriptions 29.1% higher (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest the year before and year after diagnosis offer multiple opportunities to implement quality supports. FPs are integral to dementia care and require effective resources to properly serve this population.

A stakeholder engagement strategy for an ongoing research program in rural dementia care: Stakeholder and researcher perspectives.

Participatory research approaches have developed in response to the growing emphasis on translation of research evidence into practice. However, there are few published examples of stakeholder engagement strategies, and little guidance specific to larger ongoing research programs or those with a rural focus. This paper describes the evolution, structure, and processes of an annual Rural Dementia Summit launched in 2008 as an engagement strategy for the Rural Dementia Action Research (RaDAR) program and ongoing for more than 10 years; and reports findings from a parallel mixed-methods study that includes stakeholder and researcher perspectives on the Summit's value and impact. Twelve years of stakeholder evaluations were analyzed. Rating scale data were summarized with descriptive statistics; open-ended questions were analyzed using an inductive thematic analysis. A thematic analysis was also used to analyze interviews with RaDAR researchers. Rating scale data showed high stakeholder satisfaction with all aspects of the Summit. Five themes were identified in the qualitative data: hearing diverse perspectives, building connections, collaborating for change, developing research and practice capacity, and leaving recharged. Five themes were identified in the researcher data: impact on development as a researcher, understanding stakeholder needs, informing research design, deepening commitment to rural dementia research, and building a culture of engagement. These findings reflect the key principles and impacts of stakeholder engagement reported in the literature. Additional findings include the value stakeholders place on connecting with stakeholders from diverse backgrounds, how the Summit was revitalizing, and how it developed stakeholder capacity to support change in their communities. Findings indicate that the Summit has developed into a community of practice where people with a common interest come together to learn and collaborate to improve rural dementia care. The Summit's success and sustainability are linked to RaDAR's responsiveness to stakeholder needs, the trust that has been established, and the value that stakeholders and researchers find in their participation.

A Scoping Review of Care Trajectories across Multiple Settings for Persons with Dementia.

Multiple transitions across care settings can be disruptive for older adults with dementia and their care partners, and can lead to fragmented care with adverse outcomes. This scoping review was conducted to identify and classify care trajectories across multiple settings for people with dementia, and to understand the prevalence of multiple transitions and associated factors at the individual and organizational levels. Searches of three databases, limited to peer-reviewed studies published between 2007 and 2017, provided 33 articles for inclusion. We identified 26 distinct care trajectories. Common trajectories involved hospital readmission or discharge from hospital to long-term care. Factors associated with transitions were identified mainly at the level of demographic and medical characteristics. Findings suggest a need for investing in stronger community-based systems of care that may reduce transitions. Further research is recommended to address knowledge gaps about complex and longitudinal care trajectories and trajectories experienced by sub-populations of people living with dementia.

The meaning of nursing practice for nurses who are retired yet continue to work in a rural or remote community.

BACKGROUND: Although much research has focused on nurses' retirement intentions, little is known about nurses who formally retire yet continue to practice, particularly in rural and remote settings where mobilization of all nurses is needed to assure essential health services. To optimize practice and sustain the workforce stretched thin by the COVID-19 pandemic, it is necessary to understand what it means for retired registered nurses (RNs) and licensed practical nurses (LPNs) to work after retirement. This study explored what nursing practice means for RNs and LPNs who have formally retired but continue to practice in rural and remote communities. METHODS: A pan-Canadian cross-sectional survey conducted in 2014-2015 of nurses in rural and remote Canada provided data for analysis. Textual responses from 82 RNs and 19 LPNs who indicated they had retired but were occasionally employed in nursing were interpreted hermeneutically. RESULTS: Retired nurses who continued to practice took on new challenges as well as sought opportunities to continue to learn, grow, and give back. Worklife flexibility was important, including having control over working hours. Nurses' everyday practice was inextricably tied up with their lives in rural and remote communities, with RNs emphasizing serving their communities and LPNs appreciating community recognition and the family-like character of their work settings. CONCLUSIONS: Retired nurses who continue to work in nursing see retirement as the next phase in their profession and a vital way of engaging with their rural and remote communities. This study counters the conventional view of retaining retired nurses only to combat nursing shortages and alleviate a knowledge drain from the workplace. Rural and remote nurses who retire and continue working contribute to their workplaces and communities in important and innovative ways. They can be characterized as dedicated, independent, and resilient. Transitioning to retirement in rural and remote practice can be re-imagined in ways that involve both the community and the workplace. Supporting work flexibility for retired nurses while facilitating their practice, technological acumen, and professional development, can allow retired nurses to contribute their joy of being a nurse along with their extensive knowledge and in-depth experience of nursing and the community.

The importance of organizational commitment in rural nurses' intent to leave.

AIMS: To examine determinants of intention to leave a nursing position in rural and remote areas within the next year, for Registered Nurses or Nurse Practitioners (RNs/NPs) and Licensed Practical Nurses (LPNs). DESIGN: A pan-Canadian cross-sectional survey. METHODS: The Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada II survey (2014-2015) used stratified, systematic sampling and obtained two samples of questionnaire responses on intent to leave from 1,932 RNs/NPs and 1,133 LPNs. Separate logistic regression analyses were conducted for RNs/NPs and LPNs. RESULTS: For RNs/NPs, 19.8% of the variance on intent to leave was explained by 11 variables; and for LPNs, 16.9% of the variance was explained by seven variables. Organizational commitment was the only variable associated with intent to leave for both RNs/NPs and LPNs. CONCLUSIONS: Enhancement of organizational commitment is important in reducing intent to leave and turnover. Since most variables associated with intent to leave differ between RNs/NPs and LPNs, the distinction of nurse type is critical for the development of rural-specific turnover reduction strategies. Comparison of determinants of intent to leave in the current RNs/NPs analysis with the first pan-Canadian study of rural and remote nurses (2001-2002) showed similarity of issues for RNs/NPs over time, suggesting that some issues addressing turnover remain unresolved. IMPACT: The geographic maldistribution of nurses requires focused attention on nurses' intent to leave. This research shows that healthcare organizations would do well to develop policies targeting specific variables associated with intent to leave for each type of nurse in the rural and remote context. Practical strategies could include specific continuing education initiatives, tailored mentoring programs, and the creation of career pathways for nurses in rural and remote settings. They would also include place-based actions designed to enhance nurses' integration with their communities and which would be planned together with communities and nurses themselves.

Exploring the Distressing Events and Perceptions of Support Experienced by Rural and Remote Nurses: A Thematic Analysis of National Survey Data.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to traumatic events is an occupational hazard with potential adverse psychological consequences. Previous research has focused mainly on urban practice settings; therefore, this study explored the distressing experiences encountered by rural/remote nurses and their perception of organizational support. METHODS: Thematic analyses were conducted on open-ended data from a pan-Canadian survey of 3,822 regulated nurses, where 1,222 nurses (32%) reported experiencing an extremely distressing health care incident within the past 2 years. Among the respondents, 804 nurses (65%) reported that they did not receive psychological support from the organizations leadership following incidents. FINDINGS: Three main themes regarding distressing events were: (a) involvement in profound events of death/dying, traumatic injury and loss, (b) experiencing or witnessing severe violence and/or aggression, and (c) failure to rescue or protect patients/clients. Three themes were identified regarding perceptions of organizational support including: (a) feeling well supported in the work setting with debriefing and reliance on informal peer support, (b) lack of acknowledgement and support from leaders on the nature and impact of distressing events, and (c) barriers influencing access to adequate mental health services in rural/remote settings. CONCLUSION/APPLICATION TO PRACTICE: Findings suggest that rural/remote nurses rely on informal, peer supports; there is a lack of organizational understanding of the potential risks to their psychosocial health and safety. They require more accessible, structured, appropriate, and timely supports within these settings. Increased understanding of the psychological hazards will assist organizations to establish workplace policies and practices designed to protect and support rural/remote nurses.

The Mosaic of Primary Care Nurses in Rural and Remote Canada: Results from a National Survey.

BACKGROUND|OBJECTIVE: Nurses provide essential primary care (PC) in rural and remote Canada. We examined the practice context and responsibilities of this little-known understudied workforce. METHOD: Data from Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada II, a 2014 to 2015 pan-Canadian survey, were analyzed. RESULTS: Of 3,822 respondents, 192 identified that PC was their only practice focus (PC-Only), and for 111, it was one focus among others (PC-Plus). Proportionally more PC-Only than PC-Plus nurses had graduate education, were employed in larger communities and had experienced higher job resources and lower job demands. Proportionally fewer PC-Only than PC-Plus nurses followed protocols/decision support tools, dispensed medications and provided emergency services. Proportionally more PC-Only than PC-Plus nurses ordered advanced diagnostic tests/imaging, and fewer PC-Only than PC-Plus nurses performed and interpreted laboratory tests and diagnostic imaging on site. CONCLUSION: Contributions of the rural and remote nursing workforce to PC are rendered invisible by contemporary characterizations of the PC workplace, limiting evaluation and improvement efforts.

Barriers and facilitators to development and implementation of a rural primary health care intervention for dementia: a process evaluation.

BACKGROUND: With rural population aging there are growing numbers of people with dementia in rural and remote settings. The role of primary health care (PHC) is critical in rural locations, yet there is a lack of rural-specific PHC models for dementia, and little is known about factors influencing the development, implementation, and sustainability of rural PHC interventions. Using a community-based participatory research approach, researchers collaborated with a rural PHC team to co-design and implement an evidence-based interdisciplinary rural PHC memory clinic in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. This paper reports barriers and facilitators to developing, implementing, and sustaining the intervention. METHODS: A qualitative longitudinal process evaluation was conducted over two and half years, from pre- to post-implementation. Data collection and analyses were guided by the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) which consists of 38 constructs within five domains: innovation characteristics, outer setting, inner setting, individual characteristics, and process. Data were collected via focus groups with the PHC team and stakeholders, smaller team workgroup meetings, and team member interviews. Analysis was conducted using a deductive approach to apply CFIR codes to the data and an inductive analysis to identify barriers and facilitators. RESULTS: Across all domains, 14 constructs influenced development and implementation. Three domains (innovation characteristics, inner setting, process) were most important. Facilitators were the relative advantage of the intervention, ability to trial on a small scale, tension for change, leadership engagement, availability of resources, education and support from researchers, increased self-efficacy, and engagement of champions. Barriers included the complexity of multiple intervention components, required practice changes, lack of formal incentive programs, time intensiveness of modifying the EMR during iterative development, lack of EMR access by all team members, lack of co-location of team members, workload and busy clinical schedules, inability to justify a designated dementia care manager role, and turnover of PHC team members. CONCLUSIONS: The study identified key factors that supported and hindered the development and implementation of a rural-specific strategy for dementia assessment and management in PHC. Despite challenges related to the rural context, the researcher-academic partnership was successful in developing and implementing the intervention.

Communication tools and sources of education and information: a national survey of rural and remote nurses.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined accessibility of communication tools in the workplace, use of education to update nursing knowledge, and use of information to make specific decisions in practice among registered nurses (RNs) and licensed practical nurses (LPNs) in rural and remote communities in Canada. METHODS: Data were analyzed from the cross-sectional survey, "Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada II," of regulated nurses practicing in all provinces and territories of Canada. Data were collected from April 2014 to August 2015. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 3,822 of 9,622 nurses (40% response), and the present analysis was conducted with a subsample of 2,827 nurses. High-speed Internet was the most accessible communication tool, and nurses used "online/electronic education" more often than "in-person education" to update their nursing knowledge. Internet searches were used more often than several other online/electronic sources to inform decision making. Compared to LPNs, RNs reported greater workplace access to most communication tools and greater use of online/electronic education as well as information sources in online/electronic and print formats. Compared to nurses in community-based health care and hospital settings, nurses in long-term care settings reported lower access to most communication tools, lower use of online/electronic and in-person education, and lower use of online/electronic information. CONCLUSIONS: Access to continuing education and up-to-date information is important for effective patient care. This study points to a need for further research on the continuing education and information needs of rural and remote RNs and LPNs, and on their capacity to incorporate and apply new knowledge in practice.

Rural and Remote Registered Nurses' Perceptions of Working Beyond Their Legislated Scope of Practice.

Registered nurses (RNs) enact their scope of practice in everyday practice through the influences of client needs, the practice setting, employer requirements and policies and the nurse's own level of competence (Canadian Nurses Association 2015). A scope of practice is "dynamic and responsive to changing health needs, knowledge development and technological advances" (International Council of Nurses 2013). In Canada, RNs' scope of practice is set out through provincial and territorial legislation and provincial regulatory frameworks, which are broadly consistent, but vary across provinces (Schiller 2015). Provincial and territorial regulatory bodies articulate the RN scope through frameworks that include expected standards as well as, in some jurisdictions, limits and conditions upon practice (British Columbia College of Nursing Professionals 2018), and which are commonly referred to as a licensed or registered scope of practice. Rural and remote practice is starting to be explicitly acknowledged within nurses' legislated scopes of practice through the identification of certified practices for RNs in specific rural and remote practice settings, following approved education (British Columbia College of Nursing Professionals 2018).

Rural and Remote Licensed Practical Nurses' Perceptions of Working Below Their Legislated Scope of Practice.

Over the past two decades in Canada, licensed or registered practical nurses (LPNs) have experienced an extension of their educational preparation and scope of practice. Simultaneously, there has been an increase in the number of LPNs employed in rural and remote communities. These changes have influenced the practice environment and LPNs' perceptions of their work. The aim of this article is to examine what factors predict rural and remote LPNs' perceptions of working below their legislated scope of practice and to explore their perceptions of working below scope. The findings arise from a national survey of rural and remote regulated nurses, in which 77.3% and 17.6% of the LPNs reported their practice as within and as below their legislated scope of practice, respectively. Three factors, age, stage of career and job-resources related to autonomy and control, predicted that LPNs would perceive themselves to be working below their scope of practice. These results suggest that new ways to communicate nurses' scope of practice are needed, along with supports to help rural and remote LPNs more consistently practice to their legislated scope of practice. Without such changes, the LPN role cannot be optimized and disharmony within rural and remote settings may be exacerbated.

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Job Demands in Nursing Scale and Job Resources in Nursing Scale: Results from a national study.

AIM: To develop and test the psychometric properties of the Job Resources in Nursing (JRIN) Scale and the Job Demands in Nursing (JDIN) Scale. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. METHODS: A three-phase process of instrument development and psychometric evaluation was employed: Phase 1: development of a 42-item JRIN Scale and 60-item JDIN Scale through extensive literature review, expert consultation and an iterative content evaluation; Phase 2: pilot survey of 89 nurses and use of item discrimination analysis to estimate the internal consistency reliability of each subscale and reduce the length of each scale; Phase 3: Modified scales were tested in a nationwide survey of 3,822 rural/remote nurses, including use of exploratory factor analysis. RESULTS: The 24 items related to job resources favoured a six-factor structure, accounting for 63% of the variance, Cronbach's alpha 0.88. The 22 items related to job demands favoured a six-factor structure, accounting for 59% of the variance, Cronbach's alpha 0.84.

Competence and confidence in rural and remote nursing practice: A structural equation modelling analysis of national data.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To empirically test a conceptual model of confidence and competence in rural and remote nursing practice. BACKGROUND: The levels of competence and confidence of nurses practising in rural settings have been highlighted as essential to the quality of health outcomes for rural peoples. However, there is limited research exploring these constructs in the context of rural/remote nursing practice. DESIGN: Structural equation modelling was used to verify the conceptual model with data from the cross-sectional pan-Canadian Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada II Survey. The STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional research were followed in the design/reporting of this analysis. The sample consisted of 2,065 registered nurses and nurse practitioners who were working in direct rural/remote nursing practice. RESULTS: The maximum likelihood ratio χ2  = 0.0822, df = 2, p = 0.959 indicated model fit, with final model estimates explaining 53% of the variance in work confidence and 17% of the variance in work competence. The model also accounted for 40% of the variance in work engagement, 39% of the variance in burnout and 15% of the variance in perceived stress. The complexity of competence and confidence in rural nursing practice was evident, being influenced by nursing experience in rural settings, rural work environment characteristics, community factors and indicators of professional well-being. CONCLUSIONS: The factors influencing nurses' competence and confidence in rural/remote nursing practice are more complex than previously understood. Our model, created and tested using structural equation modelling, merits further research, to extend our understanding of how nurses can be prepared and supported for practice in rural and remote settings. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: This study highlights the importance of supporting new nurses' exposure to rural nursing experiences, reducing professional isolation and improving decision-making support for those who are working at a greater distance from colleagues and/or those with fewer opportunities for interprofessional collaboration.

A five-step approach for developing and implementing a Rural Primary Health Care Model for Dementia: a community-academic partnership.

AIM: This study is aimed at developing a Rural Primary Health Care (PHC) Model for delivering comprehensive PHC for dementia in rural settings and addressing the gap in knowledge about disseminating and implementing evidence-based dementia care in a rural PHC context. BACKGROUND: Limited access to specialists and services in rural areas leads to increased responsibility for dementia diagnosis and management in PHC, yet a gap exists in evidence-based best practices for rural dementia care. METHODS: Elements of the Rural PHC Model for Dementia were based on seven principles of effective PHC for dementia identified from published research and organized into three domains: team-based care, decision support, and specialist-to-provider support. Since 2013 the researchers have collaborated with a rural PHC team in a community of 1000 people in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan to operationalize these elements in ways that were feasible in the local context. The five-step approach included: building relationships; conducting a problem analysis/needs assessment; identifying core and adaptable elements of a decision support tool embedded in the model and resolving applicability issues; implementing and adapting the intervention with local stakeholders; and sustaining the model while incrementally scaling up. RESULTS: Developing and sustaining relationships at regional and PHC team levels was critical. A comprehensive needs assessment identified challenges related to all domains of the Rural PHC Model. An existing decision support tool for dementia diagnosis and management was adapted and embedded in the team's electronic medical record. Strategies for operationalizing other model elements included integrating team-based care co-ordination into the decision support tool and family-centered case conferences. Research team specialists provided educational sessions on topics identified by the PHC team. This paper provides an example of a community-based process for adapting evidence-based practice principles to a real-world setting.

Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of the Primary Health Care Engagement (PHCE) Scale in rural and remote nurses: findings from a national survey.

Aim The study purpose was to provide evidence of validity for the Primary Health Care Engagement (PHCE) Scale, based on exploratory factor analysis and reliability findings from a large national survey of regulated nurses residing and working in rural and remote Canadian communities. BACKGROUND: There are currently no published provider-level instruments to adequately assess delivery of community-based primary health care, relevant to ongoing primary health care (PHC) reform strategies across Canada and elsewhere. The PHCE Scale reflects a contemporary approach that emphasizes community-oriented and community-based elements of PHC delivery. METHODS: Data from the pan-Canadian Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada II (RRNII) survey were used to conduct an exploratory factor analysis and evaluate the internal consistency reliability of the final PHCE Scale. Findings The RRNII survey sample included 1587 registered nurses, nurse practitioners, licensed practical nurses, and registered psychiatric nurses residing and working in rural and remote Canada. Exploratory factor analysis identified an eight-factor structure across 28 items overall, and good internal consistency reliability was indicated by an α estimate of 0.89 for the final scale. The final 28-item PHCE Scale includes three of four elements in a contemporary approach to PHC (accessibility/availability, community participation, and intersectoral team) and most community-oriented/based elements of PHC (interdisciplinary collaboration, person-centred, continuity, population orientation, and quality improvement). We recommend additional psychometric testing in a range of health care providers and settings, as the PHCE Scale shows promise as a tool for health care planners and researchers to test interventions and track progress in primary health care reform.

Nurses who work in rural and remote communities in Canada: a national survey.

BACKGROUND: In Canada, as in other parts of the world, there is geographic maldistribution of the nursing workforce, and insufficient attention is paid to the strengths and needs of those providing care in rural and remote settings. In order to inform workforce planning, a national study, Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada II, was conducted with the rural and remote regulated nursing workforce (registered nurses, nurse practitioners, licensed or registered practical nurses, and registered psychiatric nurses) with the intent of informing policy and planning about improving nursing services and access to care. In this article, the study methods are described along with an examination of the characteristics of the rural and remote nursing workforce with a focus on important variations among nurse types and regions. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey used a mailed questionnaire with persistent follow-up to achieve a stratified systematic sample of 3822 regulated nurses from all provinces and territories, living outside of the commuting zones of large urban centers and in the north of Canada. RESULTS: Rural workforce characteristics reported here suggest the persistence of key characteristics noted in a previous Canada-wide survey of rural registered nurses (2001-2002), namely the aging of the rural nursing workforce, the growth in baccalaureate education for registered nurses, and increasing casualization. Two thirds of the nurses grew up in a community of under 10 000 people. While nurses' levels of satisfaction with their nursing practice and community are generally high, significant variations were noted by nurse type. Nurses reported coming to rural communities to work for reasons of location, interest in the practice setting, and income, and staying for similar reasons. Important variations were noted by nurse type and region. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of the rural nursing workforce in Canada is continuing to decline in relation to the proportion of the Canadian population in rural and remote settings. Survey results about the characteristics and practice of the various types of nurses can support workforce planning to improve nursing services and access to care.

Trajectories of Depressive Symptomatology in Rural Memory Clinic Patients between Baseline Diagnosis and 1-Year Follow-Up.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To investigate the prevalence and trajectories of depressive symptomatology at 1-year follow-up, and the severity of depressive symptoms, by dementia diagnostic group, as well as to determine the predictors of depressive symptomatology at 1-year follow-up. METHODS: In rural and remote patients of an interdisciplinary memory clinic between 2004 and 2014, 144 patients diagnosed with no cognitive impairment (NCI), mild cognitive impairment, dementia due to Alzheimer's disease (AD), or non-AD dementia completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies of Depression Scale to assess depressive symptomatology at both time points. RESULTS: Among patients with data at both time points, persistence of depressive symptomatology at follow-up occurred in 22.2%, remission in 17.4%, incidence in 13.2%, and absence in 47.2%. The prevalence of depressive symptomatology at baseline and persistence at follow-up were significantly greater in the NCI group than in the other diagnostic groups, but there were no differences in severity. Depressive symptomatology at follow-up was independently associated with depressive symptomatology, lower independence in activities of daily living, and lower self-rating of memory at baseline, as well as with decreased independence in activities of daily living between time points. CONCLUSION: Future studies should further examine short-term postdiagnostic trajectories in depressive symptomatology in multiple dementia diagnostic groups to inform prognoses and treatment decisions.

Simultaneous temporal trends in dementia incidence and prevalence, 2005-2013: a population-based retrospective cohort study in Saskatchewan, Canada.

BACKGROUND: Original studies published over the last decade regarding time trends in dementia report mixed results. The aims of the present study were to use linked administrative health data for the province of Saskatchewan for the period 2005/2006 to 2012/2013 to: (1) examine simultaneous temporal trends in annual age- and sex-specific dementia incidence and prevalence among individuals aged 45 and older, and (2) stratify the changes in incidence over time by database of identification. METHODS: Using a population-based retrospective cohort study design, data were extracted from seven provincial administrative health databases linked by a unique anonymized identification number. Individuals 45 years and older at first identification of dementia between April 1, 2005 and March 31, 2013 were included, based on case definition criteria met within any one of four administrative health databases (hospital, physician, prescription drug, and long-term care). RESULTS: Between 2005/2006 and 2012/2013, the 12-month age-standardized incidence rate of dementia declined significantly by 11.07% and the 12-month age-standardized prevalence increased significantly by 30.54%. The number of incident cases decreased from 3,389 to 3,270 and the number of prevalent cases increased from 8,795 to 13,012. Incidence rate reductions were observed in every database of identification. CONCLUSIONS: We observed a simultaneous trend of decreasing incidence and increasing prevalence of dementia over a relatively short 8-year time period from 2005/2006 to 2012/2013. These trends indicate that the average survival time of dementia is lengthening. Continued observation of these time trends is warranted given the short study period.