The "Other Side of The Fence": A Learning- And Control-Based Investigation Of The Relationship Between Deviance And Friendship Quality.

Utilizing frameworks of social control and differential association theories, this study addresses the extent to which deviance (a predictor) is related to friendship quality (the outcome). Using dyadic data, results demonstrate that the highest estimates of friendship quality come from actors who have non-deviant friends and who also refrain from theft and violence themselves. Shared deviance within the friendship, referred to as 'homophily,' harms friendship quality, although it does not mediate or moderate the deviance - friendship quality link. Overall, deviance relates to friendship quality in a way that supports a bonding tradition more than a learning tradition.

Butane hash oil and dabbing: insights into use, amateur production techniques, and potential harm mitigation.

The use of marijuana concentrates has escalated in recent years with butane extracts appearing particularly popular. The administration of butane hash oil, colloquially referred to as "dabbing," is distinct from traditional flower cannabis usage due to the THC content of samples and the presence of impurities such as unpurged butane. While this may confer heightened risk to the user, additional significant concerns are tied to fires and explosions. Using butane as a solvent in amateur "blasting" methods may result in a flammable vapor pooling in enclosed spaces and igniting when exposed to a spark. As research on butane extract users, amateur production techniques, health risks, and legality is in its infancy, we explored existing studies on the topic to create a review of substantiated knowledge related to THC extracted using butane. The resulting assessment centers on three areas: 1) dab users including both recreational users and medical marijuana patients; 2) butane extraction techniques including illicit amateur open methods and the safer closed-loop system employed in medicinal/recreational states; and 3) risks, both related to fires and legality. We follow the presentation of this material with a summary of the (mis)information reaching the public in print and online sources so that public educational campaigns can focus on dispelling the inaccuracies and false notions of safety that may be tied to amateur production.

Exploring synthetic heroin: Accounts of acetyl fentanyl use from a sample of dually diagnosed drug offenders.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Acetyl fentanyl, a fentanyl analogue emerging onto the recreational drug scene, has been responsible for numerous recent fatal overdoses in the USA, Europe and Russia. Studies reporting acetyl fentanyl use are presently limited to case studies and mortality reports. This study explores the nature of acetyl fentanyl use through the collection of first-hand qualitative data from users to inform public health and drug control policy responses. DESIGN AND METHODS: A series of focus group interviews within a correctional setting-Delaware County (Ohio) Jail, USA. Participants were 102 individuals in one of two US Bureau of Justice Assistance Second Chance Act substance use treatment initiatives participating in at least one focus group session. Five of these individuals reported acetyl fentanyl use. Semi-structured qualitative focus group sessions queried subjects' drugs of choice and nature of drug use. Responses were explored through follow-up organic discourse. RESULTS: Acetyl fentanyl users were generally unaware that they had administered the substance until after use (initially believing that they were administering heroin). They described the effects of acetyl fentanyl as stronger and qualitatively different from heroin. These individuals showed no interest in using acetyl fentanyl again describing it as unpleasant and more risky, both because of potency and the threat of a 'bad batch'. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Acetyl fentanyl is reaching heroin users, some of which administer it unknowingly. Regulation of acetyl fentanyl is recommended in all countries as is increasing public awareness that the substance is distinct from and being sold as heroin. [Miller JM, Stogner JM, Miller BL, Blough S. Exploring synthetic heroin: Accounts of acetyl fentanyl use from a sample of dually diagnosed drug offenders. Drug Alcohol Rev 2018;37:121-127].

Deception and Drug Acquisition: Correlates of "Success" Among Drug-Seeking Patients.

PURPOSE: Most research examining patient-based drug diversion neglects to assess physician deception directly. We attempt to determine if motives for deception are linked to success, and, similarly, if any health, demographic, or substance use history characteristics of the patients are predictive of being able to successfully deceive a physician. METHODS: Stratified random sampling was utilized to obtain a sample of 2349 young adults. Respondents completed a survey detailing their substance use histories and whether they had ever deceived a physician for medication. Ninety-three of these respondents reported attempting to deceive a physician for a medication and compose the analytic sample for the study. RESULTS: Of the 93 young adults who reported having attempted to deceive a physician for pharmaceuticals (4.0% of the general sample), 64 (68.8%) were successful. This included 24 only seeking medications for their own use, 9 only for financial purposes, and 31 with both motives. Respondents who reported recreationally using pharmaceuticals in the past were more likely to report successful attempts at obtaining a prescription compared with respondents without a history of abuse. With respect to demographic characteristics of the respondents, only race/ethnicity distinguished between successful attempts and failure. CONCLUSIONS: Although a rare occurrence in the overall sample, significant correlates of successful deception did emerge. Respondents motivated to obtain a prescription in order to sell it to others were overwhelmingly likely to succeed in their pursuit to deceive as compared with respondents who sought prescriptions for their own abuse. Successful deceivers were also more likely to have been legitimately prescribed medication in the past. Successful respondents were more likely to be Caucasian than any other race/ethnicity.

Genetic Modification of the Relationship between Parental Rejection and Adolescent Alcohol Use.

AIMS: Parenting practices are associated with adolescents' alcohol consumption, however not all youth respond similarly to challenging family situations and harsh environments. This study examines the relationship between perceived parental rejection and adolescent alcohol use, and specifically evaluates whether youth who possess greater genetic sensitivity to their environment are more susceptible to negative parental relationships. METHODS: Analyzing data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we estimated a series of regression models predicting alcohol use during adolescence. A multiplicative interaction term between parental rejection and a genetic index was constructed to evaluate this potential gene-environment interaction. RESULTS: Results from logistic regression analyses show a statistically significant gene-environment interaction predicting alcohol use. The relationship between parental rejection and alcohol use was moderated by the genetic index, indicating that adolescents possessing more 'risk alleles' for five candidate genes were affected more by stressful parental relationships. CONCLUSIONS: Feelings of parental rejection appear to influence the alcohol use decisions of youth, but they do not do so equally for all. Higher scores on the constructed genetic sensitivity measure are related to increased susceptibility to negative parental relationships.

Exploring Butane Hash Oil Use: A Research Note.

The practice of "dabbing" has seen an apparent upswing in popularity in recent months within American drug subcultures. "Dabbing" refers to the use of butane-extracted marijuana products that offer users much higher tetrahydrocannabinol content than flower cannabis through a single dosage process. Though considerably more potent than most marijuana strains in their traditional form, these butane hash oil products and the practice of dabbing are underexplored in the empirical literature, especially in prohibition states. A mixed-methods evaluation of a federally funded treatment program for drug-involved offenders identified a small sample (n = 6) of butane hash oil users and generated focus group interview data on the nature of butane hash oil, the practice of dabbing, and its effects. Findings inform discussion of additional research needed on butane hash oil and its implications for the ongoing marijuana legalization debate, including the diversity of users, routes of administration, and differences between retail/medical and prohibition states.

Predictions instead of panics: the framework and utility of systematic forecasting of novel psychoactive drug trends.

BACKGROUND: Countless novel psychoactive substances have been sensationally described in the last 15 years by the media and academia. Though some become significant issues, most fail to become a substantial threat. The diversity and breadth of these potential problem substances has led policymakers, law enforcement officers, and healthcare providers alike to feel overwhelmed and underprepared for dealing with novel drugs. OBJECTIVE: Inadequacies in training and preparation may be remedied by a response that is more selective and more proactive. The current manuscript seeks to clarify how to most efficiently forecast the "success" of each newly introduced novel psychoactive substance in order to allow for more efficient decision making and proactive resource allocation. METHODS: A review of literature, published case reports, and legal studies was used to determine which factors were most closely linked to use of a novel drug spreading. Following the development of a forecasting framework, examples of its use are provided. RESULTS: The resulting five-step forecast method relies on assessments of the availability of a potential user base, the costs--legal and otherwise--of the drug relative to existent analogues, the subjective experience, the substance's dependence potential and that of any existent analogue, and ease of acquisition. These five factors should serve to forecast the prevalence of novel drug use, but reaction should be conditioned by the potential for harm. CONCLUSIONS: The five-step forecast method predicts that use of acetyl fentanyl, kratom, Leonotis leonurus, and e-cigarettes will grow, but that use of dragonfly and similar substances will not. While this forecasting approach should not be used as a replacement for monitoring, the use of the five-step method will allow policymakers, law enforcement and practitioners to quickly begin targeted evaluative, intervention, and treatment initiatives only for those drugs with predicted harm.

DAT1 and Alcohol Use: Differential Responses to Life Stress during Adolescence.

Stressful life events can impact both substance use initiation and the quantity of substances consumed by adolescents; however, the effect of stress on substance use may be contingent on other factors including social support, peers, and genotype. DAT1, a polymorphic dopamine transporter gene, is one such factor that may be responsible for differential susceptibility to cumulative life pressures. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health was utilized to determine whether adolescents with the 10-repeat allele are more likely to respond to life stresses by engaging in alcohol use than those without the allele. Respondents' self-reports of key stressors were used to create a composite life stress scale. The interaction of this measure with the number of 10-repeat DAT1 alleles was evaluated in series of logistic regression models. A significant interaction emerged between stressful life experiences and DAT1 for alcohol use among females, but this pattern was not seen in males. Females with the 10-repeat allele appear to be more sensitive to life stress as compared to those without the allele. It appears that variation in the DAT1 gene may help explain why some women are more likely to consume alcohol when confronted with stress. It however does not appear to condition the reaction of men, in terms of alcohol use, to stress.

Deception for drugs: self-reported "doctor shopping" among young adults.

BACKGROUND: Pharmaceutical abuse is a burgeoning problem, and various forms of drug diversion are becoming more common. At present, little is known about those who attempt to deceive physicians to receive medications, and even less is known about those who successfully avoid detection and abuse-related repercussions. The goal of this study is to assess the prevalence of attempted physician deception in a general population, explore common motives, and evaluate risk factors associated with the behavior. METHODS: A stratified random sampling technique was used to obtain a locally representative sample of 2349 young adults. The sample was 48.4% male, 68.9% white, 24.4% black, and 2.8% Hispanic. Selected individuals were surveyed using a self-report instrument (80.4% response rate). RESULTS: Of the respondents, 93 (4.0%) self-reported having attempted to deceive a physician to obtain a pharmaceutical. Most of these indicated that they were at least partially motivated by their own abuse. Approximately half reported that selling a portion of the prescription was a motivating factor. Alcohol use, marijuana use, and pharmaceutical misuse each were risk factors associated with attempted deception. Although no traits were definitively linked to the behavior, attempted deception was more commonly reported by men, Hispanics, self-identified lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender individuals, and those at the lowest and highest extremes of the income spectrum. Logistic regression models of rare events indicated that past substance use along with sexual orientation and family income were related to attempted deception when controlling for other factors. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that attempted physician deception may be more common than previously believed. Practicing physicians should attempt to use risk factor information presented within this study, albeit very cautiously. This study identifies general characteristics of young people who might divert medications but notes that only a small minority of any patient group will do so. Awareness should not equal bias in the treatment of these patients; instead, it should reinforce the need for careful clinical interviewing and the utilization of prescription drug monitoring programs and local law enforcement databases.

Innovative alcohol use: assessing the prevalence of alcohol without liquid and other non-oral routes of alcohol administration.

BACKGROUND: Though case studies, media reports, and anecdotal evidence point to creative forms of alcohol use such as "eyeballing," inhalation through vaporizers and other "alcohol without liquid" (AWOL) devices, and "slimming" as a growing trend, no empirical study has assessed the veracity of these claims. The present study attempts to debunk, confirm, or alter the popular perception that young adults are administering alcohol in novel ways. METHODS: A self-report paper survey was administered to 2349 young adults selected for inclusion using a stratified random sampling technique. Respondents were asked to indicate all of the ways in which they had administered alcohol and presented options ranging from traditional oral consumption from a cup, can, or bottle to innovative techniques referenced by medical reports and news outlets. The prevalence of each form of innovative use was reported and explored. RESULTS: Innovative alcohol use was very rare in the sample. Only 25 of 2349 participants (1.1%) had engaged in one or more of the creative methods of alcohol consumption. Among these individuals, most reported either using an AWOL device and/or administering alcohol anally. Vaginal administration and "eyeballing" were only reported by three and one respondents, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: It appears that innovative alcohol use is more than an urban legend but that innovative use, even among a population with high rates of alcohol and drug use, is rare. Regardless, physicians and emergency medical personnel need to be aware of and prepared for dealing with innovative alcohol use.

Not-so-clean fun: a profile of bath salt users among a college sample in the United States.

This research examines the characteristics of users of synthetic stimulants marketed as "bath salts." Synthetic stimulants such as MDPV (3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone), Mephedrone (4-Methylmethcathinone), and Methylone (3,4-Methylenedioxymethcathinone) are often contained in products sold at convenience stores and over the Internet in the United States. Despite the recent legal action banning these types of synthetic stimulants, little is known about the characteristics of the users of these substances. This research provides a profile of bath salt users in the United States among an emerging adult population. A self-report survey instrument was administered to 2,349 students at a large university in the southeastern United States. Respondents indicated whether they had used synthetic stimulants and reported demographic characteristics. Results indicated that users of bath salts were more likely to be male, Hispanic or Native American, student athletes, employed, identify as a members of the LGBT community, and users of other substances.

It's five o'clock somewhere: An examination of the association between happy hour drinking and negative consequences.

BACKGROUND: This study aims to understand which young adults' drinking behaviors change in the presence of happy hour specials, the ways in which they change, and whether a link exists between happy hour drinking behavior and negative outcomes. METHODS: Using data collected from bar-going respondents (n = 1,423) within a print survey administered to a general college sample (n = 2,349), we identify significant differences in changes in happy hour behavior between demographic groups using χ(2) tests and determine whether this behavior is related to six negative alcohol-related outcomes using logistical and ordinary least squares regression models with a variety of controls, including age of onset and frequency of use. RESULTS: Women, students under 21, non-athletes, members of Greek-affiliated organizations, more affluent and unemployed students, and students living on campus were more likely to change their drinking behavior in the presence of happy hour specials. In general, the most robust predictors of negative events are gender, alcohol use frequency, age of alcohol use onset, and increasing drinking due to happy hours/bar specials. While it was linked to various negative and illegal behaviors, altered happy hour drinking was not associated with an increased likelihood of an alcohol-related arrest. CONCLUSIONS: This study lends support to the idea that alcohol price specials should be regulated in an effort to reduce high consumption and alcohol-related negative consequences. Future research into the relationship between happy hour drinking and negative outcomes is necessary and should examine the impact of happy hour advertisements, different types of specials, and the timing of happy hours.

Purple drank prevalence and characteristics of misusers of codeine cough syrup mixtures.

A mixture of codeine cough syrup with alcohol and/or a soft drink known as "purple drank" has gained media attention in recent years as a drug associated with professional athletes and southern rap music. The existing research on purple drank consumption has primarily utilized samples of African Americans residing in the Houston, Texas area. This is the first scholarly study of purple drank use outside of the Houston, Texas area among a general population of young adults, and indicates that purple drank use is not limited to African American males. The findings depict higher odds of the use of purple drank among other racial and ethnic groups, males, and homosexual, bisexual, and transgender college students from urban areas.

Investigating the 'bath salt' panic: the rarity of synthetic cathinone use among students in the United States.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Until recently, synthetic cathinones marketed as 'bath salts' were legally sold at convenience stores and online in the USA. Media reports initiated concerns of a growing 'bath salt' epidemic. Despite media attention and the recent legal action banning synthetic cathinones, little is known about its prevalence or users. DESIGN AND METHODS: A self-report survey was administered to 2349 students in 40 randomly selected courses at a large university in the Southeastern United States. The resulting sample was 51.6% female, 68.9% white, 24.4% black, 2.8% Hispanic and 4.0% other races, with a mean age of 20.06 years and median family income of $75 000-99 999. RESULTS: Only 25 (1.07%) of the students reported using synthetic cathinones at least once. Synthetic cathinone use was found to be more common among men (1.68% vs. 0.50% of women, P = 0.005), Hispanics (4.7%) and Native Americans (4.3% vs. 0.89% of whites and 0.72% of blacks, P = 0.002), and student athletes (4.0% vs. 0.90% of non-athletes, P = 0.001), but in each of these groups, synthetic cathinones were used more rarely than marijuana (58.14%, P < 0.001), cocaine (9.08%, P < 0.001), Salvia divinorum (7.89%, P < 0.001), synthetic cannabinoids (14.28%, P < 0.001), methamphetamines (1.92%, P = 0.002), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA) (12.54%, P < 0.001) and several other drugs and pharmaceuticals. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: 'Bath salts' have received a great deal of media attention in the USA, yet the prevalence of synthetic cathinone use among our sample was extremely rare. We suggest that the media attention focusing on synthetic cathinone use as a growing epidemic may be largely misplaced.

Perception vs. reality: an investigation of the misperceptions concerning the extent of peer novel drug use.

Misperceptions of peer substance use have previously been implicated as significant influences on individual use of both alcohol and illicit drugs. However, research on perceived social norms and related interventions are typically limited to binge drinking and marijuana and no empirical studies have explored misperceptions related to "novel drugs." The present study explored the extent of use and perceptions of use among a college sample (N = 2,349) for three categories of novel drugs: synthetic cannabinoids (Spice, K2, Mr. Miyagi, Pot-Pourri, etc.), synthetic cathinones (commonly known as "bath salts"), and Salvia divinorum. Results indicate that overall perceived use was significantly higher than actual reported use. The frequency of overestimation of peer use was particularly large for the emerging drugs when compared to alcohol and marijuana. This finding is concerning as these misperceptions have the potential to influence students toward experimentation with these substances and suggests that a possible target for intervention is misperceptions of emerging novel substances.

Investigating friendship quality: an exploration of self-control and social control theories' friendship hypotheses.

While associations with deviant peers are well understood to impact individual development, less is understood about the relationship between friendship quality and delinquency. Two criminological theories--social control theory and self-control theory--are able to offer an explanation for the latter relationship. Social control and self-control theories both premise that delinquents will have largely fractured, weak, and "cold and brittle" friendships. This study investigates how variations in perceptions of friendship quality are related to the delinquency, maternal attachment, school attachment, and self-control levels of both a participant and his/her close friend. To explore these relationships, we use a diverse (14% black; 18% Hispanic; 9% Asian) sample of 2,154 emerging adults within 1,077 friendship pairs (66% female). In each dyad, both members perceived the friendship's quality and reported personal markers of delinquency, social bonds, and self-control. Several series of multilevel models are estimated that regress each participant's friendship quality perception onto the participant's and their friend's delinquency, attachments, self-control, and demographic characteristics. Results show that delinquents have as intense, or more intense, friendships as non-delinquents. However, low levels of both actor and partner attachments and self-control are independently related to low friendship quality, and this is especially true for self-control. Supplemental analyses demonstrate that the effect of self-control on friendship quality may be reduced when individuals in dyads are delinquent. In conclusion, studies that address friendship quality without including characteristics of multiple members of the friendship are only capturing part of one's estimate of friendship quality.