Comparison of Heating Strategies on Soil Water Measurement Using Actively Heated Fiber Optics on Contrasting Textured Soils.

The actively heated fiber optics (AHFO) technique has the potential to measure soil water at high spatial and temporal resolutions, and thus it can bridge the measurement gap from point to large scales. However, the availability of power might restrict its use, since high power is required to heat long fiber optic cables under field conditions; this can be a challenge for long-term soil water monitoring under field conditions. This study investigated the performance of different heating strategies (power intensity and heating duration) on soil water measurement by the AHFO technique on three different textured soils. Different heating strategies: high power-short pulses (20 Wm-1-3 min), low power-short pulses (10 Wm-1-3 min, 5 Wm-1-3 min, 2.5 Wm-1-3 min) and low power-long pulses (10 Wm-1-5 min, 5 Wm-1-10 min, 2.5 Wm-1-15 min) were tested using laboratory soil columns. The study compared the sensitivity of the thermal response, NTcum to volumetric water content (VWC) and the predictive error of different heating strategies and soils. Results of this study showed that the sensitivity of NTcum increased and the predictive error decreased with increasing power intensity, irrespective of the soil type. Low power-short heat pulses such as 5 Wm-1-3 min and 2.5 Wm-1-3 min produced high predictive errors, RMSE of 5-6% and 6-7%, respectively. However, extending the heating duration was effective in reducing the error for both 10 and 5 Wm-1 power intensities, but not for the 2.5 Wm-1. The improvement was particularly noticeable in 5 Wm-1 -10 min; it reduced the RMSE by 1.5% (sand and clay loam) and 2.73% (sandy loam). Overall, the results of this study suggested that extending the heating duration of 10 and 5 Wm-1 power intensities can improve the sensitivity of the thermal response and predictive accuracy of the estimated soil water content (SWC). The results are particularly important for field applications of the AHFO technique, which can be limited by the availability of high power, which restricts the use of 20 Wm-1. For example, 5 Wm-1-10 min improved the predictive accuracy to 3-4%, which has the potential to be used for validating soil water estimations at satellite footprint scales. However, the effects of diurnal temperature variations should also be considered, particularly when using low power intensity such as 5 Wm-1 in surface soils under field conditions.

Effects of Initial Soil Moisture, Clod Size, and Clay Content on Ammonia Volatilization after Subsurface Band Application of Urea.

Ammonia losses from broadcast urea vary based on soil physical and chemical properties; however, less is known about how soil properties affect NH losses after subsurface banding of urea. Therefore, three field trials were established to determine how initial soil moisture, clod size, and clay content affect NH volatilization from subsurface-banded (0.025-m depth) urea using wind tunnels. The first study measured volatilization after banding in a loamy mixed frigid Typic Humaquept at 50, 100, 150, 200, or 250 g kg gravimetric water content (WC). Study 2 measured volatilization from the same soil after covering the bands with soil clods that ranged from <2 to >24 mm in diameter, whereas Study 3 measured volatilization from transplanted, acidic soils with clay contents ranging from 5 to 57%. Cumulative 17-d NH losses for study one ranged from 8.3 to 20.8% of applied N, with the soil wetted to 200 g kg WC experiencing the greatest losses. For Study 2, cumulative NH volatilization losses ranged from 10.8 to 20.8% of applied N, with the greatest losses from the largest clod sizes. For Study 3, NH losses ranged from 2.5 to 51.7% of applied N, with the NH losses correlated to the maximum pH measured in the band ( < 0.001), and to the soil cation exchange capacity ( = 0.054), titratable acidity ( = 0.072), and clay content ( = 0.100). However, the soil with high silt, not sand, content had the highest volatilization losses, suggesting that high silt soils may have the greatest potential for NH volatilization.

The heat penalty of walkable neighbourhoods.

"Walkability" or walking-friendliness is generally considered a favourable attribute of a neighbourhood that supports physical activity and improves health outcomes. Walkable neighbourhoods tend to have high-density infrastructure and relatively high amounts of concrete and pavement for sidewalks and streets, all of which can elevate local urban temperatures. The objective of this study was to assess whether there is a "heat penalty" associated with more walkable neighbourhoods in Montréal, Québec, Canada, using air temperature measurements taken in real time at street level during a heat event. The mean temperature of "Car-Dependent" neighbourhoods was 26.2 °C (95% CI 25.8, 26.6) whereas the mean temperature of "Walker's Paradise" neighbourhoods was 27.9 °C (95% CI 27.8, 28.1)-a difference of 1.7 °C (95% CI 1.3, 2.0). There was a strong association between higher walkability of Montréal neighbourhoods and elevated temperature (r = 0.61, p < 0.01); suggestive of a heat penalty for walkable neighbourhoods. Planning solutions that support increased walking-friendliness of neighbourhoods should consider simultaneous strategies to mitigate heat to reduce potential health consequences of the heat penalty.

Multi-year net ecosystem carbon balance of a restored peatland reveals a return to carbon sink.

Peatlands after drainage and extraction are large sources of carbon (C) to the atmosphere. Restoration, through re-wetting and revegetation, aims to return the C sink function by re-establishing conditions similar to that of an undrained peatland. However, the time needed to re-establish C sequestration is not well constrained due to the lack of multi-year measurements. We measured over 3 years the net ecosystem exchange of CO2 (NEE), methane ( F CH 4 ), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) at a restored post-extraction peatland (RES) in southeast Canada (restored 14 years prior to the start of the study) and compared our observations to the C balance of an intact reference peatland (REF) that has a long-term continuous flux record and is in the same climate zone. Small but significant differences in winter respiration driven by temperature were mainly responsible for differences in cumulative NEE between years. Low growing season inter-annual variability was linked to constancy of the initial spring water table position, controlled by the blocked drainage ditches and the presence of water storage structures (bunds and pools). Half-hour F CH 4 at RES was small except when Typha latifolia-invaded drainage ditches were in the tower footprint; this effect at the ecosystem level was small as ditches represent a minor fraction of RES. The restored peatland was an annual sink for CO2 (-90 ± 18 g C m-2  year-1 ), a source of CH4 (4.4 ± 0.2 g C m-2  year-1 ), and a source of DOC (6.9 ± 2.2 g C m-2  year-1 ), resulting in mean net ecosystem uptake of 78 ± 17 g C m-2  year-1 . Annual NEE at RES was most similar to wetter, more productive years at REF. Integrating structures to increase water retention, alongside re-establishing key species, have been effective at re-establishing the net C sink rate to that of an intact peatland.

Soil Water Measurement Using Actively Heated Fiber Optics at Field Scale.

Several studies have demonstrated the potential of actively heated fiber optics (AHFO) to measure soil water content (SWC) at high spatial and temporal resolutions. This study tested the feasibility of the AHFO technique to measure soil water in the surface soil of a crop grown field over a growing season using an in-situ calibration approach. Heat pulses of five minutes duration were applied at a rate of 7.28 W m-1 along eighteen fiber optic cable transects installed at three depths (0.05, 0.10 and 0.20 m) at six-hour intervals. Cumulative temperature increase (Tcum) during heat pulses was calculated at locations along the cable. While predicting commercial sensor measurements, the AHFO showed root mean square errors (RMSE) of 2.8, 3.7 and 3.7% for 0.05, 0.10 and 0.20 m depths, respectively. Further, the coefficients of determination (R²) for depth specific relationships were 0.87 (0.05 m depth), 0.46 (0.10 m depth), 0.86 (0.20 m depth) and 0.66 (all depths combined). This study showed a great potential of the AHFO technique to measure soil water at high spatial resolutions (<1 m) and to monitor soil water dynamics of surface soil in a crop grown field over a cropping season with a reasonable compromise between accuracy and practicality.

Modelling CO2 emissions from water surface of a boreal hydroelectric reservoir.

To quantify CO2 emissions from water surface of a reservoir that was shaped by flooding the boreal landscape, we developed a daily time-step reservoir biogeochemistry model. We calibrated the model using the measured concentrations of dissolved organic and inorganic carbon (C) in a young boreal hydroelectric reservoir, Eastmain-1 (EM-1), in northern Quebec, Canada. We validated the model against observed CO2 fluxes from an eddy covariance tower in the middle of EM-1. The model predicted the variability of CO2 emissions reasonably well compared to the observations (root mean square error: 0.4-1.3gCm-2day-1, revised Willmott index: 0.16-0.55). In particular, we demonstrated that the annual reservoir surface effluxes were initially high, steeply declined in the first three years, and then steadily decreased to ~115gCm-2yr-1 with increasing reservoir age over the estimated "engineering" reservoir lifetime (i.e., 100years). Sensitivity analyses revealed that increasing air temperature stimulated CO2 emissions by enhancing CO2 production in the water column and sediment, and extending the duration of open water period over which emissions occur. Increasing the amount of terrestrial organic C flooded can enhance benthic CO2 fluxes and CO2 emissions from the reservoir water surface, but the effects were not significant over the simulation period. The model is useful for the understanding of the mechanism of C dynamics in reservoirs and could be used to assist the hydro-power industry and others interested in the role of boreal hydroelectric reservoirs as sources of greenhouse gas emissions.

Modeling surface energy fluxes and thermal dynamics of a seasonally ice-covered hydroelectric reservoir.

The thermal dynamics of human created northern reservoirs (e.g., water temperatures and ice cover dynamics) influence carbon processing and air-water gas exchange. Here, we developed a process-based one-dimensional model (Snow, Ice, WAater, and Sediment: SIWAS) to simulate a full year's surface energy fluxes and thermal dynamics for a moderately large (>500km(2)) boreal hydroelectric reservoir in northern Quebec, Canada. There is a lack of climate and weather data for most of the Canadian boreal so we designed SIWAS with a minimum of inputs and with a daily time step. The modeled surface energy fluxes were consistent with six years of observations from eddy covariance measurements taken in the middle of the reservoir. The simulated water temperature profiles agreed well with observations from over 100 sites across the reservoir. The model successfully captured the observed annual trend of ice cover timing, although the model overestimated the length of ice cover period (15days). Sensitivity analysis revealed that air temperature significantly affects the ice cover duration, water and sediment temperatures, but that dissolved organic carbon concentrations have little effect on the heat fluxes, and water and sediment temperatures. We conclude that the SIWAS model is capable of simulating surface energy fluxes and thermal dynamics for boreal reservoirs in regions where high temporal resolution climate data are not available. SIWAS is suitable for integration into biogeochemical models for simulating a reservoir's carbon cycle.

Daily steps are low year-round and dip lower in fall/winter: findings from a longitudinal diabetes cohort.

BACKGROUND: Higher walking levels lead to lower mortality in type 2 diabetes, but inclement weather may reduce walking. In this patient population, we conducted a longitudinal cohort study to objectively quantify seasonal variations both in walking and in two vascular risk factors associated with activity levels, hemoglobin A1C and blood pressure. METHODS: Between June 2006 and July 2009, volunteer type 2 diabetes patients in Montreal, Quebec, Canada underwent two weeks of pedometer measurement up to four times over a one year follow-up period (i.e. once/season). Pedometer viewing windows were concealed (snap-on cover and tamper proof seal). A1C, blood pressure, and anthropometric parameters were also assessed. Given similarities in measures for spring/summer and fall/winter, and because not all participants completed four assessments, spring and summer values were collapsed as were fall and winter values. Mean within-individual differences (95% confidence intervals) were computed for daily steps, A1C, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure, by subtracting spring/summer values from fall/winter values. RESULTS: Among 201 participants, 166 (82.6%) underwent at least one fall/winter and one spring/summer evaluation. Approximately half were women, the mean age was 62.4 years (SD 10.8), and the mean BMI was 30.1 kg/m2 (SD 5.7). Step counts averaged at a sedentary level in fall/winter (mean 4,901 steps/day, SD 2,464) and at a low active level in spring/summer (mean 5,659 steps/day, SD 2,611). There was a -758 (95% CI: -1,037 to -479) mean fall/winter to spring/summer within-individual difference. There were no significant differences in A1C or in anthropometric parameters. Systolic blood pressure was higher in fall/winter (mean 137 mm Hg, SD 16) than spring/summer (133 mm Hg, SD 14) with a mean difference of 4.0 mm Hg (95% CI: 2.3 to 5.7). CONCLUSIONS: Daily step counts in type 2 diabetes patients are low, dipping lower during fall/winter. In this medication-treated cohort, A1C was stable year-round but a fall/winter systolic blood pressure increase was detected. Our findings signal a need to develop strategies to help patients increase step counts year-round and prevent both reductions in step counts and increases in blood pressure during the fall and winter.

Action and puzzle video games prime different speed/accuracy tradeoffs.

To understand the way in which video-game play affects subsequent perception and cognitive strategy, two experiments were performed in which participants played either a fast-action game or a puzzle-solving game. Before and after video-game play, participants performed a task in which both speed and accuracy were emphasized. In experiment 1 participants engaged in a location task in which they clicked a mouse on the spot where a target had appeared, and in experiment 2 they were asked to judge which of four shapes was most similar to a target shape. In both experiments, participants were much faster but less accurate after playing the action game, while they were slower but more accurate after playing the puzzle game. Results are discussed in terms of a taxonomy of video games by their cognitive and perceptual demands.

Walking behaviour and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: seasonal and gender differences--study design and methods.

BACKGROUND: The high glucose levels typically occurring among adults with type 2 diabetes contribute to blood vessel injury and complications such as blindness, kidney failure, heart disease, and stroke. Higher physical activity levels are associated with improved glycemic control, as measured by hemoglobin A1C. A 1% absolute increase in A1C is associated with an 18% increased risk for heart disease or stroke. Among Canadians with type 2 diabetes, we postulate that declines in walking associated with colder temperatures and inclement weather may contribute to annual post-winter increases in A1C levels. METHODS: During this prospective cohort study being conducted in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 100 men and 100 women with type 2 diabetes will undergo four assessments (once per season) over a one-year period of observation. These assessments include (1) use of a pedometer with a concealed viewing window for a two-week period to measure walking (2) a study centre visit during which venous blood is sampled for A1C, anthropometrics are assessed, and questionnaires are completed for measurement of other factors that may influence walking and/or A1C (e.g. food frequency, depressive symptomology, medications). The relationship between spring-fall A1C difference and winter-summer difference in steps/day will be examined through multivariate linear regression models adjusted for possible confounding. Interpretation of findings by researchers in conjunction with potential knowledge "users" (e.g. health professionals, patient groups) will guide knowledge translation efforts. DISCUSSION: Although we cannot alter weather patterns to favour active lifestyles, we can design treatment strategies that take seasonal and weather-related variations into account. For example, demonstration of seasonal variation of A1C levels among Canadian men and women with T2D and greater understanding of its determinants could lead to (1) targeting physical activity levels to remain at or exceed peak values achieved during more favourable weather conditions. Strategies may include shifting to indoor activities or adapting to less favourable conditions (e.g. appropriate outdoor garments, more frequent but shorter duration periods of activity) (2) increasing dose/number of glucose-lowering medications during the winter and reducing these during the summer, in anticipation of seasonal variations (3) examining the impact of bright light therapy on activity and A1C among T2D patients with an increase in depressive symptomology when sunlight hours decline.

How to count curves: from nineteenth-century problems to twenty-first-century solutions.

Find the next term in the sequence 1, 1, 12, 620, 87304. This particular problem belongs to a branch of mathematics called enumerative geometry. This is concerned with curve-counting - counting the number of curves that can be drawn on a particular geometric object. The sequence above is easy to describe: each term represents the number of curves, with increasing complexity, one can draw though a certain number of points on a plane. Despite its simplicity, the problem remained unsolved for most of the twentieth century. The solution - a formula with which one may calculate any term in the series - was discovered only in the century's closing decade. This article will describe the above problem, and some of the unexpected mathematics and physics that was used in finding its solution [corrected]