Inflammation and CB2 signaling drive novel changes in the ocular lipidome and regulate immune cell activity in the eye.

Uveitis is inflammation of the uvea which consists of the iris, ciliary body and the choroid of the eye. Uveitis can lead to impaired vision and is responsible for 10% of all cases of blindness globally. Using an endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) rodent model, our previous data implicated the endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) in the amelioration of many of the components of the inflammatory response. Here, we test the hypothesis that the reduction in inflammatory mediators in the EIU model by the CB2 agonist, HU308, is associated with changes in ECS endogenous ligands as well as related lipids, prostaglandins (PGs), 2-acyl glycerols, and lipoamines. Analysis of leukocytes and neutrophils, CB2 mRNA, and 26 lipids in the eye of WT mice after EIU induction and HU308 treatment were compared to the same analyses in the CB2 knock-out (CB2 KO) mouse. Endothelial leukocyte adhesion and neutrophil migration were significantly increased in both WT and CB2 KO after EIU. HU308 significantly reduced the leukocyte adhesion and neutrophil recruitment in the WT animals. HU308 also significantly reduced leukocyte adhesion in the CB2 KO mouse, yet, had no effect on neutrophil infiltration suggesting an important off-target effect of HU308. Lipidomics profiles revealed significant increases in 6 non-ECS lipids after EIU in the WT and that HU308 effectively reduced these back to control levels; in addition, HU308 increased levels of 2-acyl glycerols and decreased all N-acyl glycines. CB2 KOs with saline-injection compared to WT had significantly elevated levels of 2-acyl glycerols, whereas levels of N-oleoyl ethanolamine (OEA), N-stearoyl ethanolamine (SEA), and PGE2 were reduced. CB2 KOs with EIU had 13 lipids that were significantly lower than WT with EIU including 4 N-acyl glycines. HU308 had no effect on lipid concentrations in the CB2 KOs with EIU, however, it did cause further reductions on 3 additional lipids compared to saline controls. HU308 appears to be acting at a non-CB2 target for the reduction of leukocyte infiltration in the EIU model; however, our data suggest that HU308 is working through CB2 to reduce neutrophil migration and for the regulation of multiple lipid signaling pathways including PGs, lipoamines, and 2-acyl glycerols. These data implicate ocular CB2 as a key component of lipid signaling in the eye and part of the regulatory processes of inflammation.

AM841, a covalent cannabinoid ligand, powerfully slows gastrointestinal motility in normal and stressed mice in a peripherally restricted manner.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cannabinoid (CB) ligands have been demonstrated to have utility as novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of pain, metabolic conditions and gastrointestinal (GI) disorders. However, many of these ligands are centrally active, which limits their usefulness. Here, we examine a unique novel covalent CB receptor ligand, AM841, to assess its potential for use in physiological and pathophysiological in vivo studies. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The covalent nature of AM841 was determined in vitro using electrophysiological and receptor internalization studies on isolated cultured hippocampal neurons. Mouse models were used for behavioural analysis of analgesia, hypothermia and hypolocomotion. The motility of the small and large intestine was assessed in vivo under normal conditions and after acute stress. The brain penetration of AM841 was also determined. KEY RESULTS: AM841 behaved as an irreversible CB1 receptor agonist in vitro. AM841 potently reduced GI motility through an action on CB1 receptors in the small and large intestine under physiological conditions. AM841 was even more potent under conditions of acute stress and was shown to normalize accelerated GI motility under these conditions. This compound behaved as a peripherally restricted ligand, showing very little brain penetration and no characteristic centrally mediated CB1 receptor-mediated effects (analgesia, hypothermia or hypolocomotion). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: AM841, a novel peripherally restricted covalent CB1 receptor ligand that was shown to be remarkably potent, represents a new class of potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of functional GI disorders.

Parsing the players: 2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis and degradation in the CNS.

UNLABELLED: The endogenous cannabinoid signalling system, composed of endogenous cannabinoids, cannabinoid receptors and the enzymes that synthesize and degrade the endogenous cannabinoids, is much more complex than initially conceptualized. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is the most abundant endocannabinoid and plays a major role in CNS development and synaptic plasticity. Over the past decade, many key players in 2-AG synthesis and degradation have been identified and characterized. Most 2-AG is synthesized from membrane phospholipids via sequential activation of a phospholipase Cß and a diacylglycerol lipase, although other pathways may contribute in specialized settings. 2-AG breakdown is more complicated with at least eight different enzymes participating. These enzymes can either degrade 2-AG into its components, arachidonic acid and glycerol, or transform 2-AG into highly bioactive signal molecules. The implications of the precise temporal and spatial control of the expression and function of these pleiotropic metabolizing enzymes have only recently come to be appreciated. In this review, we will focus on the primary organization of the synthetic and degradative pathways of 2-AG and then discuss more recent findings and their implications, with an eye towards the biological and therapeutic implications of manipulating 2-AG synthesis and metabolism. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Cannabinoids 2013. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-6.

The CB2-preferring agonist JWH015 also potently and efficaciously activates CB1 in autaptic hippocampal neurons.

The G protein coupled receptors CB(1) and CB(2) are targets for the psychoactive constituents of cannabis, chief among them Δ(9)-THC. They are also key components of the multifunctional endogenous cannabinoid signaling system. CB(1) and CB(2) receptors modulate a wide variety of physiological systems including analgesia, memory, mood, reward, appetite and immunity. Identification and characterization of selective CB(1) and CB(2) receptor agonists and antagonists will facilitate understanding the precise physiological and pathophysiological roles of cannabinoid receptors in these systems. This is particularly necessary in the case of CB(2) because these receptors are sparsely expressed and problematic to detect using traditional immunocytochemical approaches. 1-Propyl-2-methyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH015) is an aminoalkylindole that has been employed as a "CB(2)-selective" agonist in more than 40 published papers. However, we have found that JWH015 potently and efficaciously activates CB(1) receptors in neurons. Using murine autaptic hippocampal neurons, which express CB(1), but not CB(2) receptors, we find that JWH015 inhibits excitatory postsynaptic currents with an EC50 of 216nM. JWH015 inhibition is absent in neurons from CB(1)(-/-) cultures and is reversed by the CB(1) antagonist, SR141716 [200nM]. Furthermore, JWH015 partially occludes CB(1)-mediated DSE (∼35% remaining), an action reversed by the CB(2) antagonist, AM630 [1 and 3µM], suggesting that high concentrations of AM630 also antagonize CB(1) receptors. We conclude that while JWH015 is a CB(2)-preferring agonist, it also activates CB(1) receptors at experimentally encountered concentrations. Thus, CB(1) agonism of JWH015 needs to be considered in the design and interpretation of experiments that use JWH015 to probe CB(2)-signaling.

COX-2 and fatty acid amide hydrolase can regulate the time course of depolarization-induced suppression of excitation.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) and excitation (DSE) are two forms of cannabinoid CB(1) receptor-mediated inhibition of synaptic transmission, whose durations are regulated by endocannabinoid (eCB) degradation. We have recently shown that in cultured hippocampal neurons monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL) controls the duration of DSE, while DSI duration is determined by both MGL and COX-2. This latter result suggests that DSE might be attenuated, and excitatory transmission enhanced, during inflammation and in other settings where COX-2 expression is up-regulated. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: To investigate whether it is possible to control the duration of eCB-mediated synaptic plasticity by varied expression of eCB-degrading enzymes, we transfected excitatory autaptic hippocampal neurons with putative 2-AG metabolizing enzymes: COX-2, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), α/ß hydrolase domain 6 (ABHD6), α/ß hydrolase domain 12 (ABHD12) or MGL. KEY RESULTS: We found that overexpression of either COX-2 or FAAH shortens the duration of DSE while ABHD6 or ABHD12 do not. In contrast, genetic deletion (MGL(-/-)) and overexpression of MGL both radically altered eCB-mediated synaptic plasticity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: We conclude that both FAAH and COX-2 can be trafficked to neuronal sites where they are able to degrade eCBs to modulate DSE duration and, by extension, net endocannabinoid signalling at a given synapse. The results for COX-2, which is often up-regulated under pathological conditions, are of particular note in that they offer a mechanism by which up-regulated COX-2 may promote neuronal excitation by suppressing DSE while enhancing conversion of 2-AG to PGE(2) -glycerol ester under pathological conditions.

Cannabinoid signaling in inhibitory autaptic hippocampal neurons.

Depolarization-induced suppression of excitation and inhibition (DSE/DSI) appears to be an important form of short-term retrograde neuronal plasticity involving endocannabinoids (eCBs), the activation of presynaptic cannabinoid CB1 receptors, and the suppression of neurotransmitter release. Using murine autaptic hippocampal cultures, we have distinguished five populations of autaptic inhibitory neurons that exhibit differential cannabinoid responses, including three temporally distinct forms of DSI. One remaining population responded to cannabinoids but did not have DSI while a fifth had neither DSI nor cannabinoid responses. Of the two chief candidate eCBs, 2-AG reversibly inhibited inhibitory post synaptic currents (IPSCs) while anandamide did so irreversibly, the latter's action inconsistent with a role as a bona fide eCB mediator of DSI. The duration of depolarization necessary to elicit the two most prominent forms of DSI (effective dose (ED-50) approximately 210, approximately 280 ms) was far less than for autaptic DSE. However the nearly identical concentration response for 2-AG to inhibit excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) and IPSCs indicates that this difference is not due to differential cannabinoid receptor sensitivity. Interestingly, of the two populations exhibiting prominent DSI, one had a substantially faster recovery time course both after DSI and 2-AG, this despite being cultured under identical conditions. Several enzymes have been proposed to play a role in 2-AG breakdown, presumably determining the time course of DSI: fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), monoacyl glycerol lipase (MGL), and alpha/beta-hydrolase domains 6 and 12 (ABHD6 and ABHD12). We tested the impact on DSI duration by blockers of FAAH, COX-2, MGL and ABHD6. Notably, the population with slow DSI was regulated only by MGL, whereas the fast DSI population was regulated by both MGL and COX-2. This suggests that the faster DSI time course may occur as a result of the concerted action of multiple enzymes, which may represent a more general mechanism for regulation of the duration of different forms of DSI and DSE.

Expression of CB2 cannabinoid receptor mRNA in adult rat retina.

To date, two cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, have been cloned. The CB1 receptor has been found in a variety of tissues, particularly in the brain. CB2 receptor mRNA is mainly expressed in the immune system, though one group has found it in mouse cerebellum. Previous immunostaining studies in our lab demonstrated the presence of CB1 receptors in the retina though little evidence exists for the presence of CB2. The putative endogenous ligand for CB2 has been found in retina, however, suggesting that further study of CB2 in retina is warranted. Because glutamate is toxic to retinal ganglion cells in glaucoma and activation of CB2 receptors may be able to protect neurons from glutamate-induced death, we examined the expression of CB2 mRNA in adult rat retina in order to better understand possible neuroprotective mechanisms relevant to glaucoma. Using in situ hybridization, we demonstrated that CB2 cannabinoid receptor messenger RNA was clearly expressed in the adult rat retina, including the somas of retinal ganglion cells. Antisense cRNA probe detected strong signals in the retinal ganglion cell layer, the inner nuclear layer, and the inner segments of photoreceptor cells. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in both rat and mouse tissue, we obtained an RT-PCR product with the same sequence as that reported for CB2 in the GenBank database, thus confirming the presence of CB2 mRNA in retina. The presence of CB2 in retina provides new evidence for the presence of CB2 in the central nervous system (CNS) and an excellent model for its study.

Cannabinoid CB1 receptors and ligands in vertebrate retina: localization and function of an endogenous signaling system.

CB1, a cannabinoid receptor enriched in neuronal tissue, was found in high concentration in retinas of rhesus monkey, mouse, rat, chick, goldfish, and tiger salamander by using a subtype-specific polyclonal antibody. Immunolabeling was detected in the two synaptic layers of the retina, the inner and outer plexiform layers, of all six species examined. In the outer plexiform layer, CB1 was located in and/or on cone pedicles and rod spherules. Labeling was detected in some amacrine cells of all species and in the ganglion cells and ganglion cell axons of all species except fish. In addition, sparse labeling was found in the inner and/or outer segments of the photoreceptors of monkey, mouse, rat, and chick. Using GC/MS to detect possible endogenous cannabinoids, we found 3 nmol of 2-arachidonylglycerol per g of tissue, but no anandamide was detectable. Cannabinoid receptor agonists induced a dramatic reduction in the amplitude of voltage-gated L-type calcium channel currents in identified retinal bipolar cells. The presence and distribution of the CB1 receptor, the large amounts of 2-arachidonylglycerol found, and the effects of cannabinoids on calcium channel activity in bipolar cells suggest a substantive role for an endogenous cannabinoid signaling system in retinal physiology, and perhaps vision in general.

Localization of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the human anterior eye and retina.

PURPOSE: To determine the presence and distribution of CB1 cannabinoid receptors within the human eye. METHODS: A subtype-specific affinity-purified polyclonal antibody to the cannabinoid CB1 receptor was used to determine CB1 localization. Postmortem human eyes were fixed in methacarn and embedded in paraffin. Sagittal sections were mounted on slides and immunostained using antibodies to the CB1 receptor. Antibody binding was detected either by using peroxidase conjugated secondary antibodies and developing with diaminobenzidine or by using fluorescent secondary antibodies. RESULTS: Strong CB1 receptor labeling was detected in the ciliary epithelium, the corneal epithelium, and endothelium of the anterior human eye. Strong-to-moderate levels of CB1 staining were found in the trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal. Moderate labeling was detected in the ciliary muscle and in the blood vessels of the ciliary body. Moderate-to-light labeling also was detected in the sphincter papillae of the anterior human eye. Staining for CB1 receptors also was detected in human retina. The two synaptic layers of the retina and the inner and outer plexiform layers, were both moderately stained for CB1. In addition, moderate labeling was detected in the inner nuclear layer, and the ganglion cell layer. Strong labeling was detected in the outer segments of photoreceptors. No staining was observed in the corneal stroma or in the choroid. CONCLUSIONS: The wide distribution of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in both the anterior eye and the retina of humans suggests that cannabinoids influence several different physiological functions in the human eye.