Intimate Partner Violence: A Multinational Test of Cultural Spillover Theory.

Cultural spillover theory asserts that the prevalence of socially legitimate violence to attain ends for which there is widespread social approval is part of the explanation for the prevalence of illegitimate violence. This study was a test of the cultural spillover theory as it applies to intimate partner violence (IPV). Based on data from the International Dating Violence Study (IDVS) in 32 countries, we tested the proposition that agreement with socially approved forms of violence "spills over" into violence against an intimate partner. Two versions of an index to measure legitimate violence were constructed: (a) An individual-level legitimate violence index based on the beliefs and behavior of 14,252 university students in 32 nations in the IDVS and (b) a nation-level legitimate violence index consisting of the mean of the student scores on the legitimate violence index for each of the 32 nations in the IDVS. We used the revised Conflict Tactics Scales to obtain the data on physical violence and injuries inflicted by the students in the IDVS. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypothesized relation of the individual student legitimate violence index to IPV. Socioeconomic status, limited disclosure scale, respondent's age, and length of the relationships were included as covariates. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to further investigate the associations between legitimate violence index obtained from the aggregated student data and the nation-level IPV, controlling for the gross domestic product (GDP) index and limited disclosure scale. Both individual- and nation-level analyses consistently supported cultural spillover theory's explanation of IPV. The association between legitimate violence and IPV at both levels of analysis was stronger for women than men, which is consistent with some previous studies. The results suggest that reducing legitimate violence can make an important contribution to reducing IPV.

Concordance Between Parents in Perpetration of Child Mistreatment: How Often Is It by Father-Only, Mother-Only, or by Both and What Difference Does It Make?

Research on child mistreatment tends to focus on the mother or the father as the abusing parent, even though there is wide agreement that both theory and practice should deal with child maltreatment as a family system problem. Most children have the benefit or the risk of more than one caretaker for substantial periods of their lives, most often two parents or stepparents. This article is intended to illustrate the value of research which uses concordance analysis (CA) to identify children who experienced three dyadic concordance types (DCTs) of mistreatment: father-only, mother-only, or both parents, including single-parent combinations of caretakers. A concordance approach that identifies possible abusers in addition to the presenting parent using the three DCTs is a practical first step toward a family system perspective to enhance child abuse theory, research, and practice.

Risk Factors for Concordance Between Partners in Assault Among University Student Couples.

Based on information 11,408 university students provided on perpetration of physical assault in a romantic relationship, they were classified into three Dyadic Concordance Types (DCTs). We then examined six risk factors drawn from previous literature of partner violence: physical abuse as a child, antisocial personality characteristics, alcohol abuse, coercive control, chronic denigration in a relationship, and patriarchy at the societal level. We hypothesized that some risk factors for assault are different dependent on the DCT. Using multinomial logistic regression, we found that some risk factors were associated with an increase in the risk of a couple being in the Male Only assaulted DCT more than the other two DCTs (e.g., men who were high in antisocial personality characteristics). Other risk factors were found to be associated with a greater increase in the risk a couple being in the Both assaulted DCTs (e.g., chronic denigration). These results suggest that theories about the etiology of partner violence should take into account whether the couple is Male Only, Female Only, and Both assaulted. Identification of the DCTs of cases can be helpful in focusing research, treatment, and prevention of partner violence in a way that better reflects the actual situation.

Addressing violence by female partners is vital to prevent or stop violence against women: evidence from the multisite batterer intervention evaluation.

This article presents a reanalysis of data from Gondolf's (2012) article in this journal on reoffending by men in the 15-month period subsequent to participation in batterer intervention programs. Gondolf concludes that violence by the female partners "was relatively low and does not appear to influence the program outcome in terms of men's reassault" (p. 10). The reanalyzed data lead to the opposite conclusion. The policy and practice implications are that the high rate of assault by women, including initiation of violence by female partners, needs to be addressed to enhance the effectiveness of programs to prevent and stop violence against women.

Mutuality, severity, and chronicity of violence by Father-Only, Mother-Only, and mutually violent parents as reported by university students in 15 nations.

This article aims to provide a more complete description of the violence between parents experienced by children than is usual in research and to suggest the practicality and importance of doing so. It presents results on the percent of parents in each of three Dyadic Types: Father-Only (the father assaulted the mother and the mother did not assault), Mother-Only (mother assaulted and the father did not assault), and Both-Assault; and on differences between these three types in the chronicity and severity of assaults. Questionnaires were completed by convenience samples of university students in 15 nations (N=11,408). Violence between parents was measured by the short form of the Conflict Tactics Scales. Fourteen percent of the students reported one or more instances of physical violence between their parents, including 6% who reported a severe assault. Cross classification of assaults by the father and the mother to identify Dyadic Types found 25% Father-Only, 22% Mother-Only, and 52% Both-Assaulted. The percentage in each Dyadic Type based on reports by male or female students were similar. They were also consistent with percentages found by previous studies identifying the Dyadic Types of violent couples. In respect to chronicity, when violence between parents occurred, in 82% of the cases, it occurred more than once. Research on children experiencing violence between parents, and prevention and treatment of inter-parental violence, are likely to be enhanced if it takes into account that Both-Violent is the most frequent pattern to which children are exposed and that Mother-Only is about as frequent as Father-Only. Consideration of the severity, and chronicity, of the inter-parental violence needs to replace simply classifying parents as violent. Achieving this is possible using instruments which take only three to five minutes and which can be completed by only one of the parents or by the child.

Blaming the messenger for the bad news about partner violence by women: the methodological, theoretical, and value basis of the purported invalidity of the conflict tactics scales.

More than 200 studies have found "gender symmetry" in perpetration of violence against a marital or dating partner in the sense that about the same percent of women as men physically assault a marital or dating partner. Most of these studies obtained the data using the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS). However, these results have been challenged by numerous articles in the past 25 years that have asserted that the CTS is invalid. This article identifies and responds to 11 purported methodological problems of the CTS, and two other bases for the belief that the CTS is not valid. The discussion argues that the repeated assertion over the past 25 years that the CTS is invalid is not primarily about methodology. Rather it is primarily about theories and values concerning the results of research showing gender symmetry in perpetration. According to the prevailing "patriarchal dominance" theory, these results cannot be true and therefore the CTS must be invalid. The conclusion suggests that an essential part of the effort to prevent and treat violence against women and by women requires taking into account the dyadic nature of partner violence through use of instruments such as the CTS that measure violence by both partners.

Gender differences in intended escalatory tendencies among marital partners.

This study addresses the intended escalatory tendency in eight hypothetical situations in which the provocator's identity (partner or stranger, male or female) and the provocation form (verbal or physical aggression) were manipulated. The research question is "how does the identity of the provocator and the form of his or her provocation affect the participant's intended escalation level, and does the gender of the participant affect differences in intended escalation level?" The research sample consisted of 208 Israeli couples. The main finding is that women's intended response to their male partner is more escalatory than men's intended response to their female partner. Results also show that women's escalation is the most severe to partner provocation and the least severe to male strangers' provocation. Men's escalation is the most severe to provocation by male strangers and the least severe to their partner's provocation. Findings indicate that men's intention to escalate decreases as their partner's provocation becomes more severe. The severity of provocation has little effect on women's inten-tion to escalate. Such results are consistent with social role theory and sexual selection theory that maintain that status enhancement is more important for men than for women, and is more important for men than risk reduction is, whereas the opposite is true for women.

Corporal punishment and long-term behavior problems: the moderating role of positive parenting and psychological aggression.

The aims of this study were: (a) to examine the prevalence of corporal punishment (CP) of children in Spain; (b) to analyze the extent to which CP is used in combination with psychological aggression and positive parenting among Spanish parents; and (c) to investigate whether the relation between CP and behavior problems is moderated by a positive parenting context in which CP may be used, and by the co-occurrence of psychological aggression. The sample comprised 1,071 Spanish university students (74.8% female; 25.2% male). Findings indicate a high prevalence of CP of Spanish students, revealing that significantly more mothers than fathers used CP. Furthermore, more CP is related to more use of psychological aggression and less of positive parenting. Regression analyses revealed that CP was associated with an increased probability of antisocial traits and behaviors regardless of whether there was positive parenting and psychological aggression. These results highlight that, though many Spanish parents use CP as a disciplinary strategy, it appears to be related to negative outcomes for children regardless the parental context in which it is used.

Corporal punishment and long-term behavior problems: the moderating role of positive parenting and psychological aggression / Castigo físico y consecuencias a largo plazo: el papel moderador del contexto parental positivo y la agresión psicológica

The aims of this study were: (a) to examine the prevalence of corporal punishment (CP) of children in Spain; (b) to analyze the extent to which CP is used in combination with psychological aggression and positive parenting among Spanish parents; and (c) to investigate whether the relation between CP and behavior problems is moderated by a positive parenting context in which CP may be used, and by the co-occurrence of psychological aggression. The sample comprised 1,071 Spanish university students (74.8% female; 25.2% male). Findings indicate a high prevalence of CP of Spanish students, revealing that significantly more mothers than fathers used CP. Furthermore, more CP is related to more use of psychological aggression and less of positive parenting. Regression analyses revealed that CP was associated with an increased probability of antisocial traits and behaviors regardless of whether there was positive parenting and psychological aggression. These results highlight that, though many Spanish parents use CP as a disciplinary strategy, it appears to be related to negative outcomes for children regardless the parental context in which it is used (AU)

Los objetivos de este estudio fueron: (a) examinar la prevalencia del Castigo Físico (CF) en una muestra española; (b) analizar la medida en la que el CF es usado en combinación con agresión psicológica y en un contexto parental positivo; y (c) estudiar si la relación entre el CF y diferentes consecuencias negativas a largo plazo es moderada por el contexto parental en el que el CF es usado y por la coocurrencia de agresión psicológica. La muestra estuvo compuesta de 1.071 estudiantes universitarios españoles (74,8% mujeres). Los hallazgos mostraron una alta prevalencia del CF entre universitarios españoles, revelando también que es usado con mayor frecuencia por las madres que por los padres. Los análisis de regresión pusieron de manifiesto que el CF se asocia con una mayor probabilidad de personalidad y conducta antisocial independientemente de si es usado junto con agresión psicológica o en un contexto parental positivo. Estos resultados sugieren que, aunque muchos padres españoles lo emplean como una estrategia disciplinaria, el CF parece estar relacionado con consecuencias negativas a largo plazo con independencia del contexto en el que es usado (AU)

Polyvictimization by dating partners and mental health among U.S. college students.

Studies on mental health effects of partner violence often ignore multiple victimizations or polyvictimization. The current study had several objectives: (a) examine the rate of physical, psychological, and sexual victimization and combinations of them (polyvictimization) among a sample of students at 19 U.S. colleges; (b) examine the association between victimization and depressive symptoms and posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms; and (c) examine the relation of polyvictimization to these mental health effects. A substantial number were polyvictims. As predicted, polyvictimization in almost all analyses was the strongest predictor of PTS symptoms for both men and women. Polyvictimization was a significant predictor of depressive symptoms for women. These findings highlight the importance of including polyvictimization in future work on the mental health effects of partner violence.

Prevalence of dating partner violence and suicidal ideation among male and female university students worldwide.

This paper presents findings from the International Dating Violence study regarding the prevalence of physical assault, sexual coercion, and suicidal ideation among university students and explores the relationships between suicidal ideation and dating violence. Nearly 16,000 university students from 22 sites in 21 countries were recruited through convenience sampling. The results showed that although there were large differences between countries, the lowest rates of dating violence were still quite high. Male and female students were remarkably similar in the proportion of those who physically assaulted a partner or reported being a victim of sexual coercion. Correlation analysis revealed that perpetrators and victims of physical assault had an increased rate of suicidal ideation. Depression accounted for the relationship between dating violence and suicidal ideation. This study highlights a need for the development of universal screening and targeted services for violence, depression, and suicide prevention.

Bucking the tide in family violence research.

This autobiographical article recounts a 60-year career on research and teaching, 40 of which focused on interpersonal violence against other family members. Much of that research was carried despite prevailing beliefs which characterized either the methodology or the theory to be wrong. The article illustrates four underlining themes: iconoclasm; capitalizing on chance occurrences to select research topics; the conflict between ideology, evidence, and steps taken by critics to deny or discredit the results of my research; and the role of the personal history and the personality of the researcher in molding a scientific career.

Binge drinking and violence against dating partners: the mediating effect of antisocial traits and behaviors in a multinational perspective.

Research has consistently shown a link between alcohol use and partner violence (PV). Little is known concerning the strength of this association across cultures and genders, and few have assessed possible mediators. This study assesses the link between binge drinking and PV among 7,921 college students in 38 sites around the world, and investigates the mediating role of antisocial traits and behaviors (ASTB). A significant association was found between binge drinking and PV, the strength of which differed by site but not by gender. ASTB fully mediated this association. The mean level of binge drinking at each site did not significantly influence the strength of the association between binge drinking and PV.

Gender symmetry in prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating partners by university students in Mexico and USA.

The paper reports results from analyses of the physical aggression against dating partners by four samples of university students in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, Mexican Americans and Non-Mexican Whites in El Paso and Lubbock Texas, and New Hampshire (N=1,544). The percent reporting partner violence (PV) was high in all samples, but also differed significantly between samples. The lowest rate was in New Hampshire (29.7%), followed by Texas, Non-Mexican Whites (30.9%), Texas Mexican American (34.2%), and the highest rate was in Juarez (46.1%). When only severe assaults were compared, the differences between samples was similar, i.e., lowest in New Hampshire and highest in Juarez. In all four samples, there was no significant difference between males and females in either the overall prevalence of physical aggression or the prevalence of severe attacks. Among the 553 couples where one or both of the partners were violent, in almost three quarters of the cases (71.2%) there was gender symmetry in the sense that both partners engaged in this type of behavior. When only one partner was violent, this was twice as likely to be the female partner (19.0%) as the male partner (9.8%). Among the 205 couples where there was an act of severe aggression, symmetry was less prevalent (56.6%), but when only one partner was violent, it was again twice as likely to be the female partner (29.8% female only versus 13.7 male partner only). These results are consistent with the gender symmetry in PV found in many studies. They extend those results by showing that gender symmetry prevails in four different cultural contexts. The presence of gender symmetry in these different cultural contexts, combined with studies showing that women are injured more often and more seriously by partner-assaults, and studies showing that women initiate PV as often as men, suggests that programs and policies aimed at primary prevention of PV by women are crucial to ending PV and for reducing the victimization of men and women.

Cross-cultural reliability and validity of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale Adult Recall Short Form.

OBJECTIVE: To provide data on the cross-cultural reliability of the Adult Recall Short Form of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale (MNBS), and also illustrative validity evidence. The MNBS includes items on four aspects of neglectful behavior: cognitive, emotional, physical, and supervisory. METHOD: The data were obtained by questionnaires completed by a convenience sample of 7179 students at 33 universities in 17 countries. RESULTS: The alpha coefficient of internal consistency for the entire sample was .72. By site, the coefficients ranged from one site with .55-12 sites in the .60-.69 range, and 20 sites with alpha of .70 or higher. The validity of the scale was indicated by low confounding with social desirability response set in all 33 cultural contexts, and by the results of construct validly analyses which controlled for physical maltreatment found that students who were victims of neglectful behavior as a child were more likely than other students to have physically assaulted a dating partner in the previous 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: Although the results are from a relatively privileged sample, they revealed high rates of neglectful behavior and are sufficiently promising to encourage use of the Adult Recall Short Form of the MNBS in a variety of cultural settings.

Future research on gender symmetry in physical assaults on partners.

In the light of evidence from about 200 studies showing gender symmetry in perpetration of partner assault, research can now focus on why gender symmetry is predominant and on the implications of symmetry for primary prevention and treatment of partner violence. Progress in such research is handicapped by a number of problems: (1) Insufficient empirical research and a surplus of discussion and theory, (2) Blinders imposed by commitment to a single causal factor theory-patriarchy and male dominance-in the face of overwhelming evidence that this is only one of a multitude of causes, (3) Research purporting to investigate gender differences but which obtains data on only one gender, (4) Denial of research grants to projects that do not assume most partner violence is by male perpetrators, (5) Failure to investigate primary prevention and treatment programs for female offenders, and (6) Suppression of evidence on female perpetration by both researchers and agencies.

Neglectful behavior by parents in the life history of university students in 17 countries and its relation to violence against dating partners.

This article reports the prevalence of neglectful behavior by parents of university students in 17 nations (6 in Europe, 2 in North America, 2 in Latin America, 5 in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand) and tests the hypothesis that neglect is a risk factor for violence against a dating partner. The percentage at each university who experienced neglectful behavior ranged from 3.2% to 36% (median 12%), and the percentage who perpetrated violence against dating partners ranged from 15% to 45% (median 28%). Multilevel modeling found that the more neglectful behavior experienced as a child the greater the probability of assaulting and injuring a dating partner and that the link between experiencing neglect and perpetrating violence is stronger at universities in which dating violence is more prevalent. Efforts to help parents avoid neglectful behavior can make an important contribution to primary prevention of partner violence and probably also other forms of child maltreatment.

Development and preliminary psychometric properties of the multidimensional neglectful behavior scale-child report.

This article describes the development and psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale-Child Report (MNBS-CR). The measure is broadly conceptualized to tap child neglect across four core domains: cognitive, emotional, physical and supervisory neglect, and it assesses exposure to violence, alcohol-related neglect, abandonment, and children's appraisals of parenting. Features include pictorial items, audio computer-assisted testing, and programming by age and gender of the child and caregiver. A clinical sample of 144 children, age 6 to 15 years, and a comparison sample of 87 children were tested. Results showed that the MNBS-CR has high reliability, with higher reliability found for older children (alpha = .94) than for younger children (alpha = .66). Among older children, the MNBS-CR Supervisory scale was significantly associated with the Child Behavior Check List (CBCL), and total MNBS-CR scores were significantly associated with clinician reports of behavioral disorders. Younger and older neglected children scored significantly higher on the MNBS-CR than community children.