Overexpression of the G-protein inwardly rectifying potassium channel 1 (GIRK1) in primary breast carcinomas correlates with axillary lymph node metastasis.

The acquisition of genetic alterations in tumor cells is a hallmark of cancer progression. Genetic alterations, including chromosomal sequence alterations and abnormal gene expression, increase the malignant potential of tumors by affecting pathways that regulate cell growth, cell death, tumor angiogenesis, and invasion/metastasis. We used an expression profiling technique, representational difference analysis, to identify genes the expressions of which are aberrantly increased in invasive breast carcinomas as compared with adjacent normal breast tissue from the same individual. Among the genes we identified was GIRK1, which encodes a 501 amino acid, G-protein inwardly rectifying potassium channel protein. We then measured GIRK1 mRNA expression in benign breast tissues, primary invasive breast carcinomas, and metastatic breast carcinomas from axillary lymph nodes using quantitative TaqMan reverse transcription-PCR and correlated the results with clinical parameters. We found that GIRK1 overexpression correlated with lymph node metastasis (P < 0.0029), and overexpression was greatest in tumors with more than one positive lymph node. These results indicate that GIRK1 may be useful as a biomarker for lymph node metastasis and possibly a pharmaceutical target.

Alveolar cell stretching in the presence of fibrous particles induces interleukin-8 responses.

Inhalation of fibrous particulates is strongly associated with lung injury, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms that could explain the fiber-induced pathogenesis are not fully understood. We hypothesized that the physical stress exerted on the alveolar epithelium by the deposited fibers is greatly enhanced by the tidal cyclic motion of the epithelial cells that is associated with breathing, and that this initial mechanical interaction triggers a subsequent cell response. To test this hypothesis, we developed a dynamic model of fiber-induced cell injury using a cell-stretcher device. We exposed a cyclically stretched monolayer of the human alveolar epithelial cell line A549 to glass or crocidolite asbestos fibers for 8 h and then measured the production of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-8 as a readout of fiber-induced cell injury. Cyclic stretching significantly increased IL-8 production in the fiber-treated cultures, suggesting that the physical stress on the cells caused by the fibers was indeed enhanced by the motion. Coating of the asbestos fibers with fibronectin, a glycoprotein abundant in the alveolar lining fluid, further increased the fiber-induced cell response when the cells were cyclically stretched. This response was, however, significantly reduced by introducing into the culture medium, before fiber treatment, soluble RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp)-containing peptides, which specifically block binding to integrin receptors upon RGD attachment. These results suggested that adhesive interactions between protein-coated fibers and cell surface molecules are involved in the fiber-induced pathogenic process. Our novel findings indicate the importance of physical insults in fiber-induced cell stress, and bring to the forefront the need to study the mechanisms involved in this process.

Effect of alpha-tomatine and tomatidine on membrane potential of frog embryos and active transport of ions in frog skin.

alpha-Tomatine, a glycoside in which four carbohydrate residues are attached to the 3-OH group of the aglycone tomatidine, occurs naturally in tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum). The glycoalkaloid is reported to be involved in host-plant resistance against phytopathogens and to have a variety of pharmacological and toxicological properties in animals and humans. As part of an effort designed to establish the mechanism of action of glycoalkaloids in cells, frog embryos and frog skin were exposed to varying concentrations of alpha-tomatine and tomatidine. alpha-Tomatine increased the fluorescence-measured membrane permeability of frog embryos by about 600% compared with control values; the corresponding value for tomatidine was about 150%. alpha-Tomatine also diminished sodium-active transport in frog skin by about 16% compared with control values, as estimated from the change in the interstitial short-circuit current. Tomatidine had no effect on frog skin. As these findings complement similar results with glycoalkaloids from potatoes and eggplants, the fundamental mechanism governing their action both against fungi, insects and other phytopathogens and in animal and human cells may be disruption of cell membranes and changes in ion fluxes and interstitial currents of the membranes. The described methodologies should make it possible to define the relative potencies of both adverse and beneficial effects of glycoalkaloids and metabolites in cell membranes without the use of animals.

Measurement of DNA integrity and structure in Xenopus embryos in the presence of hydroxyurea, actinomycin-D, and triethylenemelamine using the fluorescent probe Hoechst 33258.

Cell health assay of water quality (CHAWQ) is an assay using intracellular biomarkers measured by optical techniques. CHAWQ uses embryos of the South African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, and optical transducers of intracellular biomarkers to obtain rapid assessment of toxicity to frog embryos. Since the biomarkers are common to all cells, CHAWQ can indicate toxicity of different classes of chemicals. Among the biomarkers used are 1) the change in synthesis rate, 2) the structure, or 3) the environment of DNA. Measurement of DNA to detect genotoxicants has previously used extracted DNA or flow cytometry to detect alterations in DNA content or configuration. We report the use of viable frog embryos and the fluorescent probe Hoechst 33258 to detect the effect of three DNA-active chemicals--actinomycin-D, hydroxyurea, and triethylenemelamine (TEM)--on DNA in intact embryos. We found that we can detect changes in the DNA in the presence of toxicants at concentrations comparable to longer-term assays but following a much shorter time of drug exposure. Actinomycin-D caused a fluorescence decrease, TEM caused a fluorescence increase, whereas hydroxyurea gave a biphasic response. Hydroxyurea caused a decrease at low concentrations and an increase at higher concentrations. Concentration-response data for TEM, hydroxyurea, and actinomycin-D generated EC50 values of 0.1 mg/ml, 1.4 mg/ml, and 6.34 micrograms/ml, respectively.

Inhibition of cytochrome oxidase by dibucaine.

Dibucaine-HCl inhibited mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase activity in intact mitochondria with 50% inhibition occurring at 1.1 mM dibucaine-HCl. Dibucaine-HCl did not prevent the reduction of cytochrome oxidase by ascorbate plus N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (TMPD) when measured at 604 nm but prevented 50% of the absorbance change at 445 nm; dithionite reduced the oxidase completely. Dibucaine prevented binding of CO to oxidase reduced with ascorbate plus TMPD by preventing the reduction of cytochrome a3. The midpotenials of cytochrome c and cytochrome oxidase, the visible absorbance wavelength maxima, and the position and intensity of the signals of the EPR spectrum of the oxidase were not affected. Dibucaine-HCl prevented ascorbate plus TMPD-driven reduction of the near infra-red detectable copper center associated with cytochrome a: dithionite subsequently reduced this center. Dibucaine-HCl inhibited cytochrome oxidase activity by interacting between cytochrome a and its associated copper. Since respiration was 8-fold less sensitive in submitochondrial particles, this site of inhibition is on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane.

Effect of pH on CO recombination to cytochrome oxidase in intact mitochondria.

The rate of recombination of CO with fully reduced cytochrome oxidase in intact beef heart mitochondria was measured after flash photolysis at temperatures between 180 and 230K. At pH 7.4 a single Arrhenius slope corresponds to an apparent energy of activation (Ea) of 10.5 kcal/mol; the rate constants in 100% CO are twice those in the presence of 1% CO. At pH 5.5 with 100% CO, Ea's of 11.3 and 7.1 kcal/mol are observed above and below 210K, respectively, while Ea's of 7.4 and 11.1 kcal/mol are observed with 1% CO above and below 210K. At pH 9.0 Ea's of 9.2 (above 200K), 12.5 (190-200K), and 2.3 (below 190K) kcal/mol are observed with 1% CO; Ea's of 9.4, 13.4, and 2.4 kcal/mol are observed in the same temperature ranges with 100% CO present. The findings support a model with up to 4 energy barriers separating the heme region from the bulk medium with intermediate regions that can hold 1 or 2 CO, depending on pH.