ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: In January 2017, the nutrition societies of -Germany, Austria and Switzerland revised the reference values for sodium and chloride intake. METHODS: For adults, the estimated value for sodium intake was derived on the basis of a balance study. The estimated values for children and adolescents were extrapolated from this estimated value considering differences in body mass. For infants aged 0 to under 4 months, an estimated value was set based on the sodium intake via breast milk. From this value the estimated value for infants aged 4 to under 12 months was also derived by extrapolation. The estimated value for lactating women takes into account the fact that the sodium loss via breast milk is compensated through homoeostatic mechanisms. Except for infants, the reference values for chloride intake were derived based on the estimated values for sodium intake. RESULTS: For adults, pregnant and lactating women, the estimated values for sodium and chloride intake are set at 1,500 and 2,300 mg/day. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Reference values for sodium and chloride can be derived in terms of estimated values. Considering dietary recommendations for sodium and chloride, it must be taken into account that high intake of sodium chloride (salt) is associated with adverse health effects, for example, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, it is necessary to lower salt intake in the general population.
Subject(s)
Recommended Dietary Allowances , Sodium Chloride, Dietary/standards , Adolescent , Adult , Austria , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Germany , Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Lactation , Male , Policy Making , Pregnancy , Reference Values , SwitzerlandABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: The nutrition societies of Germany, Austria and Switzerland have revised the reference values for potassium intake in January 2017. METHODS: For adults, the estimated value was based on the 24-h urinary potassium excretion and on preventive considerations regarding hypertension and stroke. The estimated values for children and adolescents were extrapolated from the adult estimated value considering differences in body mass. For infants aged 0 to under 4 months, the estimated value was set based on the potassium intake via breast milk. From this reference value, the estimated value for infants aged 4 to under 12 months was also derived by extrapolation. The estimated value for lactating women takes into account the potassium loss via breast milk. RESULTS: The estimated values for potassium intake are set at 400 mg/day for breastfed infants aged 0 to under 4 months, 600 mg/day for infants aged 4 to under 12 months, 1,100-4,000 mg/day for children and adolescents, 4,000 mg/day for adults and pregnant women and 4,400 mg/day for lactating women. CONCLUSIONS: The consumption of potassium-rich foods should be generally increased. Supplemental intake beyond the estimated values has no health benefit and is therefore not recommended.
Subject(s)
Hypertension/epidemiology , Potassium, Dietary/administration & dosage , Potassium, Dietary/standards , Recommended Dietary Allowances/legislation & jurisprudence , Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Austria/epidemiology , Child , Child, Preschool , Diet , Female , Food Analysis , Germany/epidemiology , Humans , Hypertension/prevention & control , Infant , Male , Middle Aged , Potassium, Dietary/urine , Prevalence , Reference Values , Switzerland/epidemiology , Young AdultSubject(s)
Folic Acid/administration & dosage , Folic Acid/blood , Recommended Dietary Allowances , Female , Humans , PregnancyABSTRACT
The relative contribution of nutrition-related chronic diseases to the total disease burden of the society and the health care costs has risen continuously over the last decades. Thus, there is an urgent necessity to better exploit the potential of dietary prevention of diseases. Carbohydrates play a major role in human nutrition - next to fat, carbohydrates are the second biggest group of energy-yielding nutrients. Obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipoproteinaemia, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, coronary heart disease and cancer are wide-spread diseases, in which carbohydrates could have a pathophysiologic relevance. Correspondingly, modification of carbohydrate intake could have a preventive potential. In the present evidence-based guideline of the German Nutrition Society, the potential role of carbohydrates in the primary prevention of the named diseases was judged systematically. The major findings were: a high carbohydrate intake at the expense of total fat and saturated fatty acids reduces the concentrations of total, LDL and HDL cholesterol. A high carbohydrate consumption at the expense of polyunsaturated fatty acids increases total and LDL cholesterol, but reduces HDL cholesterol. Regardless of the type of fat being replaced, a high carbohydrate intake promotes an increase in the triglyceride concentration. Furthermore, a high consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increases the risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus, whereas a high dietary fibre intake, mainly from whole-grain products, reduces the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipoproteinaemia, cardiovascular disease and colorectal cancer at varying evidence levels. The practical consequences for current dietary recommendations are presented.
