Campesino hunting and conservation in Latin America.

Hunting presents a paradox for biodiversity conservation. It is both a problem and a solution to species declines and poverty. Yet, conservation scientists hold different assumptions about the significance and sustainability of hunting based on the cultures and identities of hunters. In Latin America, conservationists largely sort hunters as either indigenous or campesino. Indigenous hunters are often characterized as culturally driven stewards of wildlife sustainability. Campesino hunters, by contrast, are described as peasants-cultureless, uneducated, and uncaring toward wildlife sustainability. Although such ethnically fueled hunting discourse promotes hunting research, campesino hunters remain underrepresented in most comparative hunting reviews. Moreover, there are no targeted syntheses on the current state of knowledge about campesino hunting, nothing to guide conservation research and practice with and for the largest group of hunters in Latin America. We reviewed 334 articles published from 1937 to 2018 in English (55%) and Spanish (45%)-mostly published in 145 peer-reviewed journals-on the meanings, motivations, and sustainability of campesino hunting in Latin America. Although studies spanned 17 countries, 7 ecosystems, and >75 indigenous and nonindigenous demographics in 30 research contexts, they predominantly focused on nonindigenous campesinos for species-specific conservation and protected area management in tropical broadleaf forests of Mexico, Peru, and Colombia. Authors used 12 methods to collect campesino hunting data, primarily interviews, surveys, and questionnaires, and drew from 10 local and traditional knowledge themes about wildlife trends and uses. Eighteen drivers, 14 constraints, and 10 conflicts-mainly subsistence, income, ethics, regulations, and crop or livestock protection-shaped whether campesino hunters pursued 799 species, 70% of which were least concern species. Yet, only 25 studies (8%) empirically assessed sustainability. Our results show the need for increased interdisciplinary and geographic engagement with campesino hunting across Latin America.

Cacería Campesina y Conservación en América Latina Resumen La cacería representa una paradoja para la conservación de la biodiversidad ya que es tanto un problema como una solución para la declinación de especies y la pobreza. Aun así, los científicos de la conservación mantienen suposiciones diferentes sobre la relevancia y la sustentabilidad de la cacería basada en la cultura e identidad de los cazadores. En América Latina, los conservacionistas generalmente clasifican a los cazadores como indígenas o campesinos. Los cazadores indígenas casi siempre están caracterizados como administradores de la sustentabilidad de fauna influenciados culturalmente. Como contraste, los cazadores campesinos están descritos como personas rurales - sin cultura ni educación y sin preocupación por la sustentabilidad de la fauna. Aunque tal discurso de cacería avivado étnicamente promueve la investigación sobre la cacería, los cazadores campesinos permanecen con una baja representación en las revisiones comparativas de la cacería. Además, para el grupo más grande de cazadores en América Latina, no existen síntesis enfocadas en el estado actual del conocimiento sobre la cacería campesina, nada que guíe la investigación de la conservación y nada con qué practicarla. Revisamos 334 artículos publicados entre 1937 y 2018 en inglés (55%) y español (45%) - la mayoría publicados en 145 revistas revisadas por pares - que tratan sobre el significado, la motivación y la sustentabilidad de la cacería campesina en América Latina. Aunque los estudios abarcaron 17 países, siete ecosistemas y >75 demografías indígenas y no indígenas en 30 contextos de investigación, los artículos se enfocaron predominantemente en campesinos no indígenas para la conservación específica por especie y el manejo de las áreas protegidas en los bosques tropicales de México, Perú y Colombia. Los autores usaron doce métodos para recolectar datos de cacería campesina, principalmente entrevistas, encuestas y cuestionarios, y partieron de diez temas de conocimiento local y tradicional (CLT) sobre las tendencias y usos de la fauna. Dieciocho conductores, 14 restricciones, y diez conflictos - principalmente subsistencia, ingresos, ética, regulaciones y protección de cultivos o ganado - dieron forma a las decisiones de los cazadores sobre si perseguían a 799 especies, 70% de las cuales son especies de menor preocupación. Sin embargo, sólo 25 estudios (8%) evaluaron empíricamente la sustentabilidad. Nuestros resultados resaltan la necesidad de un mayor compromiso geográfico e interdisciplinario con la cacería campesina en toda América Latina.

Determining baselines for human-elephant conflict: A matter of time.

Elephant crop raiding is one of the most relevant forms of human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa. Northern Botswana holds the largest population of African elephants in the world, and in the eastern Okavango Panhandle, 16,000 people share and compete for resources with more than 11,000 elephants. Hence, it is not surprising this area represents a HEC 'hotspot' in the region. Crop-raiding impacts lead to negative perceptions of elephants by local communities, which can strongly undermine conservation efforts. Therefore, assessing trends in conflict levels is essential to developing successful management strategies. In this context, we investigated the trend in the number of reported raiding incidents as one of the indicators of the level of HEC, and assessed its relationship to trends in human and elephant population size, as well as land-use in the study area. For each of these factors, we considered data spanning historical (since the 1970s) and contemporary (2008-2015) time frames, with the aim of comparing subsequent inferences on the drivers of crop raiding and predictions for the future. We find that the level of reported crop raiding by elephants in the eastern Panhandle appears to have decreased since 2008, which seems to be related to the reduction in agricultural land allocated to people in recent years, more than with human and elephant population size. We show that inferences regarding the drivers of HEC and predictions for the future are dependent on the time span of the data used. Although our study represents a first step in developing a HEC baseline in the eastern Panhandle, it highlights the need for additional multi-scale analyses that consider progress in conservation conflict to better understand and predict drivers of HEC in the region.

Changes in resident attitudes towards tourism development and conservation in the Okavango Delta, Botswana.

Negative attitudes of resident communities towards conservation are associated with resource decline in developing countries. In Botswana, Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) was adopted to address this challenge. CBNRM links rural development and conservation. However, the impact of CBNRM on changes of resident attitudes towards conservation and tourism is not adequately researched. This paper, therefore, assesses the impacts of CBNRM on resident attitudes towards tourism development and conservation in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. The study purposively sampled villages of Khwai, Mababe and Sankoyo. Household data using variables like: economic benefits from CBNRM; level of satisfaction with CBNRM; co-management of natural resources between resident communities and government agencies; and collective action was collected. This data was supplemented by secondary and ethnographic data. Using qualitative and quantitative analysis, results indicate changes in resident attitudes from being negative to positive towards tourism and conservation. These changes are triggered by economic benefits residents derived from CBNRM, co-management in resource management; and, collective action of communities in CBNRM development. Positive attitudes towards conservation and tourism are the first building blocks towards achieving conservation in nature-based tourism destinations. As a result, decision-makers should give priority to CBNRM and use it as a tool to achieve conservation and improved livelihoods in nature-based tourism destinations of developing countries.

Applied biodiversity science: Bridging ecology, culture, and governance for effective conservation / Ciencia aplicada en biodiversidad: Integrando ecología, cultura y gobernancia para la conservación efectiva / Ciência aplicada em biodiversidade: Integrando ecologia, cultura e governancia para a conservação efetiva

Solutions to the biodiversity crisis will ultimately come from biological scientists and social scientists working in tandem, yet disconnects among scientific disciplines, conservation institutions, and practical implementation hinder effective conservation. The vision of Applied Biodiversity Science (ABS) is to achieve integration between biodiversity research and on-the-ground conservation practices. Three pillars support ABS: 1) integrated social and biological research; 2) cross-disciplinary collaboration with local conservation institutions and actors; and 3) application of conservation theory to practice. Our ABS program, including a doctoral training program, is focused on two cross-cutting themes: Ecological Functions and Biodiversity; and Communities and Governance. The research integration matrix matches causes of biodiversity loss against research approaches, and is thus a useful tool for defining integrative questions and building interdisciplinary research teams. Case studies from Western Amazon and Gran Chaco illustrate how the ABS model has been implemented in the Americas. The intention is that ABS approaches will produce conservation scientists who communicate effectively across disciplines, and make their research relevant to ongoing programs. The ABS approach helps elucidate how and why ecosystem functions, biodiversity, human communities and governance systems are interconnected.

Las soluciones para la crisis de biodiversidad serán generadas finalmente a partir del trabajo conjunto de científicos naturales y sociales. Pero la desconexión entre disciplinas, instituciones conservacionistas y la implementación de conocimientos impiden la conservación efectiva. La visión de la Ciencia de Biodiversidad Aplicada (CBA) es lograr la integración entre investigación sobre biodiversidad y la práctica de la conservación. Tres pilares sustentan esta propuesta: 1) investigación biológica y social integrada; 2) colaboración entre disciplinas con instituciones y actores locales que trabajan en conservación; y 3) implementación práctica de teorías sobre conservación. Nuestro programa CBA incluye un programa para estudiantes de doctorado y está enfocado en dos temas de investigación: funciones ecológicas y biodiversidad, y comunidades y gobernabilidad. La matriz integrada de investigación relaciona las causas de la pérdida de biodiversidad con los enfoques de la investigación, siendo una herramienta útil para definir hipótesis integradas y formar equipos interdisciplinarios de investigación. Estudios de casos de Amazonia y el Gran Chaco demuestran cómo implementamos el modelo de CBA en Suramérica. La intención es que el enfoque CBA produzca científicos de la conservación que se comuniquen efectivamente entre disciplinas y sus estudios sean relevantes para los programas en ejecución. El enfoque planteado ayudaría a iluminar cómo y porqué las funciones de los ecosistemas, la biodiversidad, las comunidades humanas y los sistemas de gobernabilidad están interconectadas.

As soluções para a crise de biodiversidade serão geradas finalmente apartir do trabalho conjunto de cientistas naturais e sociais. Mas a desconexão entre disciplinas, instituições conservacionistas e a implementação de conhecimentos impedem a conservação efetiva. A visão da Ciência de Biodiversidade Aplicada (CBA) é conseguir a integração entre investigação sobre biodiversidade e a prática da conservação. Três pilares sustentam esta proposta: 1) investigação biológica e social integrada; 2) colaboração entre disciplinas com instituições e atores locais que trabalham em conservação; e 3) implementação prática de teorias sobre conservação. Nosso programa CBA inclui um programa para estudantes de doutorado e está focado em dois temas de investigação: funções ecológicas e biodiversidade, e comunidades e governabilidade. A matriz integrada de investigação relaciona as causas da perda de biodiversidade com as abordagens da investigação, sendo uma ferramenta útil para definir hipóteses integradas e formar equipes interdisciplinárias de investigação. Estudos de casos da Amazônia e o Gran Chaco demonstram como implementamos o modelo de CBA na América do sul. A intenção é de que a abordagem CBA gere cientistas da conservação que se comuniquem efetivamente entre disciplinas e seus estudos sejam relevantes para os programas em execução. A abordagem sugerida ajudaria a iluminar como e porquê as funções dos ecossistemas, a biodiversidade, as comunidades humanas e os sistemas de governabilidade estão interconectadas.