Should Terminologia Anatomica be revised and extended? A critical literature review.

The first edition of the Terminologia Anatomica was published in 1998 by the Federative Committee for Anatomical Terminology, whereas the second edition was issued in 2011 by the Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminologies. Since then many attempts have been made to revise and extend the official terminology as several inconsistencies have been noted. Moreover, numerous crucial terms were either omitted or deliberately excluded from the official terminology, like sulcus popliteus and diaphragma urogenitale, respectively. Furthermore, several synonyms are to be discarded. Notwithstanding the criticism, the use of the current version of terminology is strongly recommended. Although the Terminologia Anatomica is open to future expansion and revision, every change should be made after a thorough discussion of the historical context and scientific legitimacy of a given term. The anatomical nomenclature must be as simple as possible but also precise and coherent. It is generally accepted that hasty innovation ought not to be endorsed. Therefore, there is a need to take a closer look at these new proposals as they have been presented in numerous dispersed papers. This article provides an overview of these issues and concentrates on selected revisions and extensions that are didactically and clinically useful, thereby summarising the salient aspects of these new and compelling proposals.

Elevated leukocyte count as a harbinger of systemic inflammation, disease progression, and poor prognosis: a review.

Total leukocyte count increases significantly in response to infection, trauma, inflammation, and certain diseases. Factors affecting leukocyte count in healthy adults include sex, hormonal milieu, genetic inheritance, stress level, diet, nutrition, and lifestyle (e.g. tobacco-induced inflammatory changes, chronic psychological stress, etc.). To date, numerous studies have reported that high but normal leukocyte counts at baseline predict increased cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality in older adults. Recent findings suggest that elevated leukocyte count within the normal range, but especially neutrophil and monocyte counts, may be a harbinger of increased systemic inflammation and subclinical disease. Moreover, elderly people who tend to have high but normal leukocyte counts are at greater risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, some other age-related conditions, and they also have increased all-cause mortality. These results indicate that strong and reliable inflammatory markers, such as leukocyte count, may reflect the rate of ageing and therefore can predict long-term survival in the elderly. Remarkably, leukocyte count correlates positively with genuine markers of systemic inflammation like C-reactive protein and interleukin 6. Interestingly, some authors conclude that leukocyte counts have a stronger prognostic ability with regard to total and cardiovascular mortality than total cholesterol or low-density lipoproteins. The fact that these inflammatory markers are clinically useful predictors of long-term survival in the elderly is quite remarkable as these blood parameters are included in routine medical check-ups. Therefore, they can be used as simple and reliable morphological indicators of chronic systemic inflammation, disease progression, and poor prognosis, especially among individuals who are likely to develop age-related conditions. Nevertheless, the pathomechanism that links elevated but normal leukocyte counts to increased mortality remains poorly understood. This review summarises the most important findings on the links between leukocyte count, chronic systemic inflammation, and health outcomes in older adults. (Folia Morphol 2018; 77, 2: 171-178).

The Terminologia Anatomica matters: examples from didactic, scientific, and clinical practice.

The proper usage of the anatomical terminology is of paramount importance to all medical professionals. Although a multitude of studies have been devoted to issues associated with the use and application of the recent version of the anatomical terminology in both theoretical medicine and clinical practice, there are still many unresolved problems such as confusing terms, inconsistencies, and errors, including grammar and spelling mistakes. The aim of this article is to describe the current situation of the anatomical terminology and its usage in practice, as well as explain why it is so important to use precise, appropriate, and valid anatomical terms during the everyday communication among physicians from all medical branches. In this review, we discuss some confusing, obsolete, and erroneous terms that are still commonly used by many clinicians, and surgeons in particular, during the process of diagnosis and treatment. The use of these ambiguous, erroneous, and obsolete terms enhances the risk of miscommunication. We also provide some edifying examples from everyday clinical practice.