Effects of tamoxifen on tendon homeostasis and healing: Considerations for the use of tamoxifen-inducible mouse models.

The use of tamoxifen-inducible models of Cre recombinase in the tendon field is rapidly expanding, resulting in an enhanced understanding of tendon homeostasis and healing. However, the effects of tamoxifen on the tendon are not well-defined, which is particularly problematic given that tamoxifen can have both profibrotic and antifibrotic effects in a tissue-specific manner. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the effects of tamoxifen on tendon homeostasis and healing in male and female C57Bl/6J mice. Tamoxifen-treated mice were compared to corn oil (vehicle)-treated mice. In the "washout" treatment regimen, mice were treated with tamoxifen or corn oil for 3 days beginning 1 week prior to undergoing complete transection and surgical repair of the flexor digitorum longus tendon. In the second regimen, mice were treated with tamoxifen or corn oil beginning on the day of surgery, daily through day 2 postsurgery, and every 48 hours thereafter (D0-2q48) until harvest. All repaired tendons and uninjured contralateral control tendons were harvested at day 14 postsurgery. Tamoxifen treatment had no effect on tendon healing in male mice, regardless of the treatment regimen, while Max load was significantly decreased in female repairs in the Tamoxifen washout group, relative to corn oil. In contrast, D0-2q48 corn oil treatment in female mice led to substantial disruptions in tendon homeostasis, relative to washout corn oil treatment. Collectively, these data clearly define the functional effects of tamoxifen and corn oil treatment in the tendon and inform future use of tamoxifen-inducible genetic models.

Non-Invasive Ultrasound Quantification of Scar Tissue Volume Identifies Early Functional Changes During Tendon Healing.

Tendon injuries are very common and disrupt the transmission of forces from muscle to bone, leading to impaired function and quality of life. Successful restoration of tendon function after injury is a challenging clinical problem due to the pathological, scar-mediated manner in which the tendons heal. Currently, there are no standard treatments to modulate scar tissue formation and improve tendon healing. A major limitation to the identification of therapeutic candidates has been the reliance on terminal endpoint metrics of healing in pre-clinical studies, which require a large number of animals and result in destruction of the tissue. To address this limitation, we have identified quantification of scar tissue volume (STV) from ultrasound (US) imaging as a longitudinal, non-invasive metric of tendon healing. STV was strongly correlated with established endpoint metrics of gliding function including gliding resistance and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) flexion angle. However, no associations were observed between STV and structural or material properties. To define the sensitivity of STV to identify differences between functionally discrete tendon healing phenotypes, we utilized S100a4 haploinsufficient mice (S100a4GFP/+ ), which heal with improved gliding function relative to wild-type (WT) littermates. A significant decrease in STV was observed in S100a4GFP/+ repairs, relative to WT at day 14. Taken together, these data suggest US quantification of STV as a means to facilitate the rapid screening of biological and pharmacological interventions to improve tendon healing, and identify promising therapeutic targets, in an efficient, cost-effective manner. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 37:2476-2485, 2019.

Cell non-autonomous functions of S100a4 drive fibrotic tendon healing.

Identification of pro-regenerative approaches to improve tendon healing is critically important as the fibrotic healing response impairs physical function. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that S100a4 haploinsufficiency or inhibition of S100a4 signaling improves tendon function following acute injury and surgical repair in a murine model. We demonstrate that S100a4 drives fibrotic tendon healing primarily through a cell non-autonomous process, with S100a4 haploinsufficiency promoting regenerative tendon healing. Moreover, inhibition of S100a4 signaling via antagonism of its putative receptor, RAGE, also decreases scar formation. Mechanistically, S100a4 haploinsufficiency decreases myofibroblast and macrophage content at the site of injury, with both cell populations being key drivers of fibrotic progression. Moreover, S100a4-lineage cells become α-SMA+ myofibroblasts, via loss of S100a4 expression. Using a combination of genetic mouse models, small molecule inhibitors and in vitro studies we have defined S100a4 as a novel, promising therapeutic candidate to improve tendon function after acute injury.

Insulin Receptor deletion in S100a4-lineage cells accelerates age-related bone loss.

Type I and Type II Diabetes dramatically impair skeletal health. Altered Insulin Receptor (IR) signaling is a common feature of both diseases, and insulin has potent bone anabolic functions. Several previous studies have demonstrated that loss of IR in bone cells results in disrupted bone homeostasis during early post-natal growth. Here we have deleted IR in S100a4-lineage cells (IRcKOS100a4) and assessed the effects on bone homeostasis in both young (15 weeks) and older adult (48 weeks) mice. S100a4-Cre has previously been shown to target the perichondrium during bone development, and here we show that S100a4 is expressed by adult trabecular and cortical bone cells, and that S100a4-Cre effectively targets adult bone, resulting in efficient deletion of IRß. Deletion of IRß in S100a4-lineage cells does not affect initial bone acquisition or homeostasis with no changes in cortical, trabecular or mechanical properties at 15-weeks of age, relative to wild type (WT) littermates. However, by 48-weeks of age, IRcKOS100a4 mice display substantial declines in trabecular bone volume, bone volume fraction and torsional rigidity, relative to age-matched WT controls. This work establishes the utility of using S100a4-cre to target bone and demonstrates that IRß in S100a4-lineage cells is required for maintenance of bone homeostasis in adult mice.

Obesity/Type II Diabetes Promotes Function-limiting Changes in Murine Tendons that are not reversed by Restoring Normal Metabolic Function.

Type II Diabetes (T2DM) negatively alters baseline tendon function, including decreased range of motion and mechanical properties; however, the biological mechanisms that promote diabetic tendinopathy are unknown. To facilitate identification of therapeutic targets we developed a novel murine model of diabetic tendinopathy. Mice fed a High Fat Diet (HFD) developed diet induced obesity and T2DM and demonstrated progressive impairments in tendon gliding function and mechanical properties, relative to mice fed a Low Fat Diet (LFD). We then determined if restoration of normal metabolic function, by switching mice from HFD to LFD, was sufficient to halt the pathological changes in tendon due to obesity/T2DM. However, switching from a HFD to LFD resulted in greater impairments in tendon gliding function than mice maintained on a HFD. Mechanistically, IRß signaling is decreased in obese/T2DM murine tendons, suggesting altered IRß signaling as a driver of diabetic tendinopathy. However, knock-down of IRß expression in S100a4-lineage cells (IRcKOS100a4) was not sufficient to induce diabetic tendinopathy as no impairments in tendon gliding function or mechanical properties were observed in IRcKOS100a4, relative to WT. Collectively, these data define a murine model of diabetic tendinopathy, and demonstrate that restoring normal metabolism does not slow the progression of diabetic tendinopathy.