Derepression may masquerade as activation in ligand-gated ion channels.

Agonists are ligands that bind to receptors and activate them. In the case of ligand-gated ion channels, such as the muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, mechanisms of agonist activation have been studied for decades. Taking advantage of a reconstructed ancestral muscle-type ß-subunit that forms spontaneously activating homopentamers, here we show that incorporation of human muscle-type α-subunits appears to repress spontaneous activity, and furthermore that the presence of agonist relieves this apparent α-subunit-dependent repression. Our results demonstrate that rather than provoking channel activation/opening, agonists may instead 'inhibit the inhibition' of intrinsic spontaneous activity. Thus, agonist activation may be the apparent manifestation of agonist-induced derepression. These results provide insight into intermediate states that precede channel opening and have implications for the interpretation of agonism in ligand-gated ion channels.

Ancestral acetylcholine receptor ß-subunit forms homopentamers that prime before opening spontaneously.

Human adult muscle-type acetylcholine receptors are heteropentameric ion channels formed from two α-subunits, and one each of the ß-, δ-, and ε-subunits. To form functional channels, the subunits must assemble with one another in a precise stoichiometry and arrangement. Despite being different, the four subunits share a common ancestor that is presumed to have formed homopentamers. The extent to which the properties of the modern-day receptor result from its subunit complexity is unknown. Here, we discover that a reconstructed ancestral muscle-type ß-subunit can form homopentameric ion channels. These homopentamers open spontaneously and display single-channel hallmarks of muscle-type acetylcholine receptor activity. Our findings attest to the homopentameric origin of the muscle-type acetylcholine receptor, and demonstrate that signature features of its function are both independent of agonist and do not necessitate the complex heteropentameric architecture of the modern-day protein.

A Closely Associated Phospholipase C Regulates Cation Channel Function through Phosphoinositide Hydrolysis.

In the hemaphroditic sea snail, Aplysia californica, reproduction is initiated when the bag cell neurons secrete egg-laying hormone during a protracted afterdischarge. A source of depolarization for the afterdischarge is a voltage-gated, nonselective cation channel, similar to transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. Once the afterdischarge is triggered, phospholipase C (PLC) is activated to hydrolyze phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3). We previously reported that a DAG analog, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), activates a prominent, inward whole-cell cationic current that is enhanced by IP3 To examine the underlying mechanism, we investigated the effect of exogenous OAG and IP3, as well as PLC activation, on cation channel activity and voltage dependence in excised, inside-out patches from cultured bag cell neurons. OAG transiently elevated channel open probability (PO) when applied to excised patches; however, coapplication of IP3 prolonged the OAG-induced response. In patches exposed to OAG and IP3, channel voltage dependence was left-shifted; this was also observed with OAG, but not to the same extent. Introducing the PLC activator, m-3M3FBS, to patches increased channel PO, suggesting PLC may be physically linked to the channels. Accordingly, blocking PLC with U-73122 ablated the m-3M3FBS-induced elevation in PO Treatment with m-3M3FBS left-shifted cation channel voltage dependence to a greater extent than exogenous OAG and IP3 Finally, OAG and IP3 potentiated the stimulatory effect of PKC, which is also associated with the channel. Thus, the PLC-PKC signaling system is physically localized such that PIP2 breakdown products liberated during the afterdischarge modulate the cation channel and temporally influence neuronal activity.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Using excised patches from Aplysia bag cell neurons, we present the first evidence of a nonselective cation channel physically associating with phospholipase C (PLC) at the single-channel level. PLC-mediated breakdown of phospholipids generates diacylglycerol and inositol trisphosphate, which activate the cation channel. This is mimicked by exogenous lipids; furthermore, these second messengers left-shift channel voltage dependence and enhance the response of the channel to protein kinase C. PLC-mediated lipid signaling controls single-channel currents to ensure depolarization is maintained for an extended period of firing, termed the afterdischarge, when the bag cell neurons secrete egg-laying hormone to trigger reproduction.

Tyrosine Phosphorylation Determines Afterdischarge Initiation by Regulating an Ionotropic Cholinergic Receptor.

Changes to neuronal activity often involve a rapid and precise transition from low to high excitability. In the marine snail, Aplysia, the bag cell neurons control reproduction by undergoing an afterdischarge, which begins with synaptic input releasing acetylcholine to open an ionotropic cholinergic receptor. Gating of this receptor causes depolarization and a shift from silence to continuous action potential firing, leading to the neuroendocrine secretion of egg-laying hormone and ovulation. At the onset of the afterdischarge, there is a rise in intracellular Ca2+, followed by both protein kinase C (PKC) activation and tyrosine dephosphorylation. To determine whether these signals influence the acetylcholine ionotropic receptor, we examined the bag cell neuron cholinergic response both in culture and isolated clusters using whole-cell and/or sharp-electrode electrophysiology. The acetylcholine-induced current was not altered by increasing intracellular Ca2+ via voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, clamping intracellular Ca2+ with exogenous Ca2+ buffers, or activating PKC with phorbol esters. However, lowering phosphotyrosine levels by inhibiting tyrosine kinases both reduced the cholinergic current and prevented acetylcholine from triggering action potentials or afterdischarge-like bursts. In other systems, acetylcholine receptors are often modulated by multiple signals, but bag cell neurons appear to be more restrictive in this regard. Prior work finds that, as the afterdischarge proceeds, tyrosine dephosphorylation leads to biophysical alterations that promote persistent firing. Because this firing is subsequent to the cholinergic input, inhibiting the acetylcholine receptor may represent a means of properly orchestrating synaptically induced changes in excitability.

Diacylglycerol-mediated regulation of Aplysia bag cell neuron excitability requires protein kinase C.

KEY POINTS: In Aplysia, reproduction is initiated by the bag cell neurons and a prolonged period of enhanced excitability known as the afterdischarge. Phosphoinositide turnover is upregulated during the afterdischarge resulting in the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate by phospholipase C (PLC) and the release of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3 ). In whole-cell voltage-clamped cultured bag cell neurons, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), a synthetic DAG analogue, activates a dose-dependent, transient, inward current (IOAG ) that is enhanced by IP3 , mimicked by PLC activation and dependent on basal protein kinase C (PKC) activity. OAG depolarizes bag cell neurons and triggers action potential firing in culture, and prolongs electrically stimulated afterdischarges in intact bag cell neuron clusters ex vivo. Although PKC alone cannot activate the current, it is required for IOAG ; this is the first description of required obligate PKC activity working in concert with PLC, DAG and IP3 to maintain the depolarization required for prolonged excitability in Aplysia reproduction. ABSTRACT: Following synaptic input, the bag cell neurons of Aplysia undergo a long-term afterdischarge of action potentials to secrete egg-laying hormone and initiate reproduction. Early in the afterdischarge, phospholipase C (PLC) hydrolyses phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate into inositol trisphosphate (IP3 ) and diacylglycerol (DAG). In Aplysia, little is known about the action of DAG, or any interaction with IP3 ; thus, we examined the effects of a synthetic DAG analogue, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), on whole-cell voltage-clamped cultured bag cell neurons. OAG induced a large, prolonged, Ca(2+) -permeable, concentration-dependent inward current (IOAG ) that reversed at ∼-20 mV and was enhanced by intracellular IP3 . A similar current was evoked by either another DAG analogue, 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DOG), or activating PLC with N-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (m-3M3FBS). IOAG was reduced by the general cation channel blockers Gd(3+) or flufenamic acid. Work in other systems indicated that OAG activates channels independently of protein kinase C (PKC); however, we found pretreating bag cell neurons with any of the PKC inhibitors bisindolylmaleimide, sphinganine, or H7, attenuated IOAG . However, stimulating PKC with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) did not evoke current or enhance IOAG ; moreover, unlike PMA, OAG failed to trigger PKC, as confirmed by an independent bioassay. Finally, OAG or m-3M3FBS depolarized cultured neurons, and while OAG did not provoke afterdischarges from bag cell neurons in the nervous system, it did double the duration of synaptically elicited afterdischarges. To our knowledge, this is the first report of obligate PKC activity for IOAG gating. An interaction between phosphoinositol metabolites and PKC could control the cation channel to influence afterdischarge duration.

Nicotine inhibits potassium currents in Aplysia bag cell neurons.

Acetylcholine and the archetypal cholinergic agonist, nicotine, are typically associated with the opening of ionotropic receptors. In the bag cell neurons, which govern the reproductive behavior of the marine snail, Aplysia californica, there are two cholinergic responses: a relatively large acetylcholine-induced current and a relatively small nicotine-induced current. Both currents are readily apparent at resting membrane potential and result from the opening of distinct ionotropic receptors. We now report a separate current response elicited by applying nicotine to cultured bag cell neurons under whole cell voltage-clamp. This current was ostensibly inward, best resolved at depolarized voltages, presented a noncooperative dose-response with a half-maximal concentration near 1.5 mM, and associated with a decrease in membrane conductance. The unique nicotine-evoked response was not altered by intracellular perfusion with the G protein blocker GDPßS or exposure to classical nicotinic antagonists but was occluded by replacing intracellular K(+) with Cs(+) Consistent with an underlying mechanism of direct inhibition of one or more K(+) channels, nicotine was found to rapidly reduce the fast-inactivating A-type K(+) current as well as both components of the delayed-rectifier K(+) current. Finally, nicotine increased bag cell neuron excitability, which manifested as reduction in spike threshold, greater action potential height and width, and markedly more spiking to continuous depolarizing current injection. In contrast to conventional transient activation of nicotinic ionotropic receptors, block of K(+) channels could represent a nonstandard means for nicotine to profoundly alter the electrical properties of neurons over prolonged periods of time.

Cations mediate interactions between the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and anionic lipids.

Interactions between the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and phosphatidic acid (PA) are bidirectional in that membranes containing PA are effective at stabilizing an agonist-responsive nAChR, whereas incorporation of the nAChR into the same membranes leads to a substantial increase in lipid lateral packing density. A previous study suggested that the ability of PA to adopt a dianionic ionization state is key. We monitored the ionization state of PA in both reconstituted and protein-free membranes. In model membranes composed of PA and 3:2 (mol/mol) phosphatidylcholine (PC)/PA, the monoanionic-to-dianionic transition of PA was detected with a pKa of 8.7 and 6.5, respectively. In the reconstituted 3:2 PC/PA membranes, however, PA was stabilized in a monoanionic state at pH values up to 10. Although dianionic PA does not play a role in nAChR function, we found that both the stabilization of monoanionic PA and the concentration of other cations at the bilayer surface can account for changes in bilayer physical properties that are observed upon incorporation of the nAChR into 3:2 PC/PA membranes. A nAChR-induced concentration of cations at the bilayer surface likely mediates interactions between the nAChR and the anionic lipids in its membrane environment.

Lipid composition alters drug action at the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

We tested the hypothesis that membrane lipid composition influences drug action at membrane proteins by studying local anesthetic action at the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Infrared difference spectra show that concentrations of tetracaine consistent with binding to the ion channel (<50 microM) stabilize a resting-like state when the nAChR is reconstituted into phosphatidylcholine membranes containing the anionic lipid, phosphatidic acid, but have no effect on the nAChR reconstituted into membranes lacking phosphatidic acid, either in the presence or absence of cholesterol. Concentrations of tetracaine above 200 microM lead to neurotransmitter site binding in all membranes. In the presence of phosphatidic acid, cholesterol, or both, neurotransmitter site binding leads to the formation of quaternary amine-aromatic interactions between tetracaine and binding site tyrosine/tryptophan residues and the stabilization of a desensitized state. One interpretation suggested by lipid partitioning studies is that phosphatidic acid enhances tetracaine action at the channel pore by increasing the partitioning of tetracaine into the lipid bilayer, thereby enhancing access to the transmembrane pore. However, subtle membrane-dependent variations in the vibrations of tyrosine and tryptophan residues, and agonist analog binding studies indicate that the structures of the agonist-bound neurotransmitter sites of the nAChR in membranes lacking both phosphatidic acid and cholesterol differ from the structures of the agonist-desensitized neurotransmitter sites in the presence of both lipids. Lipid action at the nAChR thus involves more than a simple modulation of the equilibrium between resting and desensitized states.