Culicoides Latreille (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae) of Colombia: records from the collection of insects of medical importance from National Institute of Health.

Background: The collection of insects of medical importance from the Instituto Nacional de Salud, INS (Bogotá, Colombia: https://www.ins.gov.co/Paginas/Inicio.aspx), was started in 1934 with the aim of being an institutional and national repository of the biodiversity of insects involved in vector-borne diseases of importance in public health. Today, the entomological collection includes more than 7,500 specimens.The ceratopogonid insects are one group of Diptera that are represented in this collection. Within the Ceratopogonidae, the genus Culicoides Latreille, 1809 is relevant in public health because of the nuisance caused by their bites when they are presented in great abundance and because of their role as vectors of several agents (virus, protozoa and nematodes) that cause diseases to humans and to animals (Mellor et al. 2000, Mullen 2002). An overview of the Ceratopogonidae, represented in this collection, is presented here. A total of 801 individuals, mainly adults of the genus Culicoides (90%) are represented. The collection is the result of the effort of several researchers of the Group of Entomology at INS. These researchers collected ceratopogonids when they went to different transmission scenarios of vector-borne diseases in Colombia, with the purpose of making entomological characterisations including the processing, assembly and identification of the specimens in the laboratory. New information: New information about the geographical distribution of 39 species of the genus Culicoides in Colombia. All data have been uploaded to GBIF and are publicly available there.

Bolometric detection of Josephson inductance in a highly resistive environment.

The Josephson junction is a building block of quantum circuits. Its behavior, well understood when treated as an isolated entity, is strongly affected by coupling to an electromagnetic environment. In 1983, Schmid predicted that a Josephson junction shunted by a resistance exceeding the resistance quantum RQ = h/4e2 ≈ 6.45 kΩ for Cooper pairs would become insulating since the phase fluctuations would destroy the coherent Josephson coupling. However, recent microwave measurements have questioned this interpretation. Here, we insert a small Josephson junction in a Johnson-Nyquist-type setup where it is driven by weak current noise arising from thermal fluctuations. Our heat probe minimally perturbs the junction's equilibrium, shedding light on features not visible in charge transport. We find that the Josephson critical current completely vanishes in DC charge transport measurement, and the junction demonstrates Coulomb blockade in agreement with the theory. Surprisingly, thermal transport measurements show that the Josephson junction acts as an inductor at high frequencies, unambiguously demonstrating that a supercurrent survives despite the Coulomb blockade observed in DC measurements.

Ultimate Accuracy of Frequency to Power Conversion by Single-Electron Injection.

We analyze theoretically the properties of the recently introduced and experimentally demonstrated converter of frequency to power. The system is composed of a hybrid single-electron box with normal island and superconducting lead, and the detector of the energy flow using a thermometer on a normal metal bolometer. Here, we consider its potential for metrology. The errors in power arise mainly from inaccuracy of injecting electrons at the precise energy equal to the energy gap of the superconductor. We calculate the main systematic error in the form of the excess average energy of the injected electrons and its cumulants, and that due to subgap leakage. We demonstrate by analytic and numerical calculations that the systematic error in detection can, in principle, be made much smaller than the injection errors, which also, with proper choice of system parameters, can be very small, <1%, at low enough temperature. Finally, we propose a simplified configuration for metrological purposes.

An electron turnstile for frequency-to-power conversion.

Single-electron transport relates an operation frequency f to the emitted current I through the electron charge e as I = ef (refs. 1-5). Similarly, direct frequency-to-power conversion (FPC) links both quantities through a known energy. FPC is a natural candidate for a power standard resorting to the most basic definition of the watt: energy emitted per unit of time. The energy is traceable to Planck's constant and the time is in turn traceable to the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom. Hence, FPC comprises a simple and elegant way to realize the watt6. In this spirit, single-photon emission7,8 and detection9 at known rates have been proposed as radiometric standards and experimentally realized10-14. However, power standards are so far only traceable to electrical units, that is, to the volt and the ohm6,15-17. In this Letter, we demonstrate an alternative proposal based on solid-state direct FPC using a hybrid single-electron transistor (SET). The SET injects n (integer) quasi-particles (QPs) per cycle into the two superconducting leads with discrete energies close to their superconducting gap Δ, even at zero source-drain voltage. Furthermore, the application of a bias voltage can vary the distribution of the power among the two leads, allowing for an almost equal power injection nΔf into the two. While in single-electron transport current is related to a fixed universal constant (e), in our approach Δ is a material-dependent quantity. We estimate that under optimized conditions errors can be well below 1%.

Feeding Selectivity of Aphelenchoides besseyi and A. pseudogoodeyi on Fungi Associated with Florida Strawberry.

Aphelenchoides besseyi and A. pseudogoodeyi are foliar nematodes associated with commercial strawberry production in Florida, United States. The reproductive and feeding habits of these two nematode species were assessed on Florida isolates of the fungi Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Macrophomina phaseolina, and Neopestalotiopsis rosae, which are pathogenic to strawberry, and nonpathogenic isolates of Fusarium oxysporum and Monilinia fructicola grown on potato dextrose agar in Petri dishes. Each culture was inoculated with six specimens of mixed life stages of A. besseyi or A. pseudogoodeyi and incubated at 24°C under axenic and nonaxenic conditions 23 and 31 days after inoculation, respectively. A. besseyi reproduction rates were greater on strawberry-pathogenic isolates of B. cinerea, C. gloeosporioides, and N. rosae than on the nonpathogenic isolates of F. oxysporum and M. fructicola. In contrast, reproductive rates of A. pseudogoodeyi did not vary among fungi cultures. For both nematode species, M. phaseolina was a poor host because it did not produce mycelium on the media used. Our findings indicate that A. besseyi is more selective in its fungal-feeding preference than A. pseudogoodeyi. Additionally, A. pseudogoodeyi eggs and juveniles were significantly more numerous than adults. Yet, for A. besseyi, adult stages were more abundant. Fungi aid in the maintenance of soil-dwelling populations of these two nematode species. Removing fungus-infected strawberry plant residues is both a desirable and effective management practice to limit A. besseyi in central Florida commercial strawberry fields.

Active Quasiparticle Suppression in a Non-Equilibrium Superconductor.

Quasiparticle (qp) poisoning is a major issue that impairs the operation of various superconducting devices. Even though these devices are often operated at temperatures well below the critical point where the number density of excitations is expected to be exponentially suppressed, their bare operation and stray microwave radiation excite the non-equilibrium qp's. Here we use voltage-biased superconducting junctions to demonstrate and quantify qp extraction in the turnstile operation of a superconductor-insulator-normal metal-insulator-superconductor single-electron transistor. In this operation regime, excitations are injected into the superconducting leads at a rate proportional to the driving frequency. We reach a reduction of density by an order of magnitude even for the highest injection rate of 2.4 × 108 qp's per second when extraction is turned on.

Aggressive Prophylactic Treatments for Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting Improve Outcomes in Pediatric Adenotonsillectomy Procedure.

OBJECTIVE: Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is an extremely common side effect of general anesthesia that is difficult to manage. We tested a hypothesis that an aggressive prophylactic intervention with additional antiemetic drugs will reduce the incidence of PONV in a high-risk pediatric population undergoing adenotonsillectomy. METHODS: In this retrospective study, pediatric patients undergoing adenotonsillectomy were screened for their risk factors for PONV. Patients who had 3 or more risk factors were identified as high risk and received either scopolamine patch preoperatively (for patients over 40 kg body weight) or diphenhydramine immediately postextubation in addition to ondansetron and dexamethasone, which are given routinely. Incidences of PONV within the first 60 minutes of a postanesthesia care unit (PACU) stay were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: Overall postoperative vomiting rates during the first hour of a PACU stay were 4.3% for the group that was treated with dexamethasone and ondansetron only and 3.9% for the group that was treated with additional antiemetic drugs. Aggressive prophylactic management of PONV did reduce the rate of nausea and vomiting in a group of high-risk patients (p < 0.0001). The postoperative antiemetic drug usage was also decreased during the first 60 minutes of a PACU stay. However, the approach did not reduce the overall rate of PONV for the entire study population (p = 0.1612 for nausea and p = 0.0678 for vomiting). CONCLUSION: Aggressive intraoperative management of PONV with additional antiemetic drugs are beneficial in high-risk pediatric population. Intraoperative diphenhydramine usage decreased the rate of PONV. However, preoperative scopolamine patch prevention did not improve PONV, which may be related to the drug's longer onset of action. Our result suggests that current clinical practice is undertreating PONV in pediatric patients receiving general anesthesia.

Plant-parasitic nematodes associated with the root zone of hop cultivars planted in a Florida field soil.

In early 2016, hop plants were introduced into Florida. By late 2016, the hop plants were showing stunted growth and were heavily parasitized by Meloidogyne javanica. In this study, we determined host susceptibility of 14 hop cultivars to M. javanica in a greenhouse experiment and monitored population development of plant-parasitic nematode species in the root zone of 17 hop cultivars planted in three newly established hop yards in Florida. Plant-parasitic nematodes in the rooting zone soil of field grown hop plants included M. javanica, Pratylenchus brachyurus, Paratrichodorus minor, Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Xiphinema setariae/vulgare complex, Mesocriconema xenoplax, and Helicotylenchus dihystera; however, soil population densities of P. minor, B. longicaudatus, X. setariae/vulgare complex, M. xenoplax, and H. dihystera remained low through the study. Root galling, M. javanica egg production, and soil population densities of M. javanica were consistently large on the 'Canadian Red Vine', 'Centennial', 'Chinook', and 'Comet' cultivars, and small on the 'Galena' and 'Triple Perle' cultivars. No differences were observed in soil population densities of P. brachyurus among hop cultivars. Overall, our study provides the first report of plant-parasitic nematode population development in the root zone on hop cultivars planted in Florida.In early 2016, hop plants were introduced into Florida. By late 2016, the hop plants were showing stunted growth and were heavily parasitized by Meloidogyne javanica. In this study, we determined host susceptibility of 14 hop cultivars to M. javanica in a greenhouse experiment and monitored population development of plant-parasitic nematode species in the root zone of 17 hop cultivars planted in three newly established hop yards in Florida. Plant-parasitic nematodes in the rooting zone soil of field grown hop plants included M. javanica, Pratylenchus brachyurus, Paratrichodorus minor, Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Xiphinema setariae/vulgare complex, Mesocriconema xenoplax, and Helicotylenchus dihystera; however, soil population densities of P. minor, B. longicaudatus, X. setariae/vulgare complex, M. xenoplax, and H. dihystera remained low through the study. Root galling, M. javanica egg production, and soil population densities of M. javanica were consistently large on the 'Canadian Red Vine', 'Centennial', 'Chinook', and 'Comet' cultivars, and small on the 'Galena' and 'Triple Perle' cultivars. No differences were observed in soil population densities of P. brachyurus among hop cultivars. Overall, our study provides the first report of plant-parasitic nematode population development in the root zone on hop cultivars planted in Florida.

The decline of dengue in the Americas in 2017: discussion of multiple hypotheses.

OBJECTIVE: Since the 1980s, dengue incidence has increased 30-fold. However, in 2017, there was a noticeable reduction in reported dengue incidence cases within the Americas, including severe and fatal cases. Understanding the mechanism underlying dengue's incidence and decline in the Americas is vital for public health planning. We aimed to provide plausible explanations for the decline in 2017. METHODS: An expert panel of representatives from scientific and academic institutions, Ministry of Health officials from Latin America and PAHO/WHO staff met in October 2017 to propose hypotheses. The meeting employed six moderated plenary discussions in which participants reviewed epidemiological evidence, suggested explanatory hypotheses, offered their expert opinions on each and developed a consensus. RESULTS: The expert group established that in 2017, there was a generalised decreased incidence, severity and number of deaths due to dengue in the Americas, accompanied by a reduction in reported cases of both Zika and chikungunya virus infections, with no change in distribution among age groups affected. This decline was determined to be unlikely due to changes in epidemiological surveillance systems, as similar designs of surveillance systems exist across the region. Although sudden surveillance disruption is possible at a country or regional level, it is unlikely to occur in all countries simultaneously. Retrospective modelling with epidemiological, immunological and entomological information is needed. Host or immunological factors may have influenced the decline in dengue cases at the population level through immunity; however, herd protection requires additional evidence. Uncertainty remains regarding the effect on the outcome of sequential infections of different dengue virus (DENV) types and Zika virus (ZIKV), and vice versa. Future studies were recommended that examine the epidemiological effect of prior DENV infection on Zika incidence and severity, the epidemiological effect of prior Zika virus infection on dengue incidence and severity, immune correlates based on new-generation ELISA assays, and impact of prior DENV/other arbovirus infection on ZIKV immune response in relation to number of infections and the duration of antibodies in relation to interval of protection. Follow-up studies should also investigate whether increased vector control intensification activities contributed to the decline in transmission of one or more of these arboviruses. Additionally, proposed studies should focus on the potential role of vector competence when simultaneously exposed to various arboviruses, and on entomological surveillance and its impact on circulating vector species, with a goal of applying specific measures that mitigate seasonal occurrence or outbreaks. CONCLUSIONS: Multifactorial events may have accounted for the decline in dengue seen in 2017. Differing elements might explain the reduction in dengue including elements of immunity, increased vector control, and even vector and\or viruses changes or adaptations. Most of the results of this expert consensus group meeting are hypothetical and based on limited evidence. Further studies are needed.

OBJECTIF: Depuis les années 1980, l'incidence de la dengue a été multipliée par 30. Cependant, en 2017, il y a eu une réduction notable du nombre de cas d'incidence de dengue rapportés dans les Amériques. Nous voulions fournir des explications plausibles à la baisse en 2017. MÉTHODES: Un groupe d'experts constitué de représentants d'institutions scientifiques et académiques, d'officiels des Ministères de la Santé d'Amérique Latine et de membres du personnel de l'OPS/OMS s'est réuni en octobre 2017 pour proposer et évaluer des hypothèses. RÉSULTATS: En 2017, il y a eu une baisse généralisée de l'incidence, de la sévérité et du nombre de décès dus à la dengue dans les Amériques, accompagnée d'une réduction des cas rapportés d'infections par le virus Zika et par le virus du chikungunya, sans modification dans la répartition entre les groupes d'âge affectés. Il a été déterminé que ce déclin était peu probablement dû aux changements dans les systèmes de surveillance épidémiologique, étant donné que des systèmes de surveillance similaires existaient dans toute la région. Bien que des perturbations soudaines dans la surveillance soient possibles au niveau national ou régional, il est peu probable que cela se produise simultanément dans tous les pays. Une modélisation rétrospective avec des informations épidémiologiques, immunologiques et entomologiques est nécessaire. Des facteurs liés à l'hôte ou immunologiques peuvent avoir influencé le déclin des cas de dengue au niveau de la population par le biais de l'immunité; cependant, l'évidence d'une protection conférée par l'effet du troupeau nécessite des données supplémentaires. Une incertitude subsiste quant à l'effet sur le résultat des infections séquentielles de différents types du virus de la dengue (DENV) et du virus Zika (ZIKV), et vice-versa. Les études à venir devraient examiner (1) l'effet épidémiologique d'une infection antérieure par le DENV sur l'incidence et la sévérité du virus Zika, (2) l'effet épidémiologique d'une infection antérieure par le virus Zika sur l'incidence et la sévérité de la dengue, (3) les corrélats immunitaires basés sur des tests ELISA de nouvelle génération, (4) l' impact d'une infection antérieure à DENV/autres arbovirus sur la réponse immunitaire au ZIKV en fonction du nombre d'infections et de la durée des anticorps en fonction de l'intervalle de protection, (5) si des activités d'intensification de la lutte antivectorielle ont contribué à la diminution de la transmission d'un ou plusieurs de ces arbovirus, (6) le rôle potentiel de la compétence vectorielle lorsqu'ils sont exposés simultanément à différents arbovirus, (7) la surveillance entomologique et son impact sur la circulation d'espèces de vecteurs, dans le but d'appliquer des mesures spécifiques qui réduisent l'occurrence saisonnière d'épidémies. CONCLUSIONS: Des événements multifactoriels pourraient expliquer le déclin observé de la dengue en 2017. La plupart des résultats de cette réunion du groupe de consensus d'experts sont hypothétiques, reposent sur des données limitées et requièrent des investigations supplémentaires.

[Factors that delay malaria diagnosis and treatment in the municipality of Riberalta in Bolivia]. / Factores que retardan el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de la malaria en el municipio de Riberalta en Bolivia.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies on the causes of the delay of malaria diagnosis and treatment in Bolivia are published. OBJECTIVE: To know the factors that delay malaria diagnosis and treatment of malaria in the public service of the town of Riberalta, Bolivia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The times between the onset of symptoms and treatment, between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis and between the diagnosis and the start of treatment were calculated. The averages of the calculated times were compared with respect to the site of infection, parasite species, level of care, place of diagnosis and diagnostic method and th patient's age was correlated with the calculated times. RESULTS: Between January and December 2010, 2,482 positive valid cases were studied. An average of 4.16 days was found between the onset of symptoms and the start of treatment, the average time between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis was 4.07 days, and between diagnosis and the start of treatment 0.10 days. Statistically significant (p<0.05) differences were found for factors related to the delay of diagnosis such as place of diagnosis, site of infection, level of care, parasite species and diagnostic method. The analysis of covariance showed a statistical association with the level of care and the parasite species (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: The delay in malaria diagnosis is influenced by factors such as the site of infection, place of diagnosis, level of care, parasite species and diagnostic method.

Electrochemical monitoring of the metabolic activity of mycobacteria in culture.

Mycobacterial metabolic activity is typically measured using time-consuming manual methods based on nutrient consumption, nucleic acid synthesis or reduction of tetrazolium salts. In this study, we propose much simpler electrochemical methods for continuous monitoring of the metabolic activity of mycobacteria in culture. Chronoamperometry and chronopotentiometry were used to detect metabolic activity of both slow-growing and fast-growing mycobacteria using a potentiostat with 2D-electrochemical cell. Electrochemical measurements were able to detect statistically significant differences in the metabolic activity of approximately 10(7) mycobacteria in different growth conditions, within less than 24 h of mycobacterial culture. The metabolic activity of mycobacteria measured by the used electrochemical methods correlated well with changes in general respiratory conditions within the cells as it was evaluated by different biochemical tests. Chronoamperometry and chronopotentiometry allowed measurement of mycobacterial metabolic activity without invasive chemical reactions, at minimal bacterial load and when metabolic response of mycobacteria occurs quickly. The proposed methodology is simple, rapid and cost-effective, and it is expected that both in vitro and in vivo metabolic activity of human mycobacterial pathogens as Mycobacterium tuberculosis can be measured when the implementation of this method to analyze virulent strains is adapted.

Factores que retardan el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de la malaria en el municipio de Riberalta en Bolivia / Factors that delay malaria diagnosis and treatment in the municipality of Riberalta in Bolivia

Introducción. Se publican pocos estudios sobre las causas del retardo del diagnóstico y el tratamiento de la malaria en Bolivia. Objetivo. Conocer los factores que retardan el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de la malaria en el servicio público del municipio de Riberalta, Bolivia. Materiales y métodos. Se calcularon los tiempos transcurridos entre el inicio de los síntomas y el tratamiento, entre el inicio de los síntomas y el diagnóstico, y entre el diagnóstico y el inicio del tratamiento; se compararon las medias de los tiempos calculados con el lugar de infección, la especie parasitaria, el nivel de atención, el lugar y el método de diagnóstico, y la edad se correlacionó con los tiempos calculados. Resultados. De 2.482 casos positivos válidos evaluados entre enero y diciembre de 2010, se encontró una media de 4,16 días entre el inicio de los síntomas y el inicio del tratamiento, de 4,07 días entre el inicio de los síntomas y el diagnóstico, y de 0,10 días entre el diagnóstico y el tratamiento. El retardo del diagnóstico y los factores, lugar de diagnóstico, lugar de infección, nivel de atención, especie parasitaria y método de diagnóstico, mostraron una diferencia estadística significativa (p<0,05). En el análisis de la covarianza se observó una asociación estadística con el nivel de atención y la especie parasitaria (p<0,05) Conclusión. Existe un retardo en el diagnóstico de la malaria, lo cual es influenciado por factores como el lugar de infección, lugar del diagnóstico, nivel de atención, especie parasitaria y método de diagnóstico.

Introduction. Few studies on the causes of the delay of malaria diagnosis and treatment in Bolivia are published. Objective. To know the factors that delay malaria diagnosis and treatment of malaria in the public service of the town of Riberalta, Bolivia. Materials and methods. The times between the onset of symptoms and treatment, between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis and between the diagnosis and the start of treatment were calculated. The averages of the calculated times were compared with respect to the site of infection, parasite species, level of care, place of diagnosis and diagnostic method and th patient’s age was correlated with the calculated times. Results. Between January and December 2010, 2,482 positive valid cases were studied. An average of 4.16 days was found between the onset of symptoms and the start of treatment, the average time between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis was 4.07 days, and between diagnosis and the start of treatment 0.10 days. Statistically significant (p<0.05) differences were found for factors related to the delay of diagnosis such as place of diagnosis, site of infection, level of care, parasite species and diagnostic method. The analysis of covariance showed a statistical association with the level of care and the parasite species (p<0.05). Conclusion. The delay in malaria diagnosis is influenced by factors such as the site of infection, place of diagnosis, level of care, parasite species and diagnostic method.

Development of a Zigbee platform for bioinstrumentation.

This paper presents the development of a network platform which allows connecting multiple individual wireless devices for transmitting bioelectrics and biomechanics signals for application in a hospital network, or continuous monitoring in a patient's diary life. The Zigbee platform development proposal was made in three stages: 1) Hardware development, including the construction of a prototype network node and the integration of sensors, (2) Evaluation, in order to define the specifications of each node and scope of communication and (3) The Zigbee Network Implementation for bioinstrumentation based on ZigBee Health Care public application profile (ZHC). Finally, this work presents the experimental results based on measurements of Lost Packets and LQI (Link Quality Indicator), and the Zigbee Platform configuration for Bioinstrumentation in operation.

Five new species of Culicoides Latreille described from Colombia, yielding a new species list and country records (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae).

The following five new species of Culicoides from Colombia are described, illustrated and placed to subgenus or species group: Culicoides antioquiensis, Culicoides gabrieli, Culicoides inermis, Culicoides micayensis and Culicoides nigrifemur. C. gabrieli is also known from Peru. When possible, their position in previously published keys is indicated and their features discussed in light of the most recent revisions. A list of 180 Culicoides species known (114) or suspected of being in Colombia (66) is given in a Table. Of these, 12 including the new species are recorded from Colombia for the first time.

Five new species of Culicoides Latreille described from Colombia, yielding a new species list and country records (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)

The following five new species of Culicoides from Colombia are described, illustrated and placed to subgenus or species group: Culicoides antioquiensis, Culicoides gabrieli, Culicoides inermis, Culicoides micayensis and Culicoides nigrifemur. C. gabrieli is also known from Peru. When possible, their position in previously published keys is indicated and their features discussed in light of the most recent revisions. A list of 180 Culicoides species known (114) or suspected of being in Colombia (66) is given in a Table. Of these, 12 including the new species are recorded from Colombia for the first time.

[Epidemiological environment and response to the HIV epidemic in Bolivia]. / Entorno epidemiológico y respuesta a la epidemia del VIH en Bolivia.

With AIDS/HIV, early detection is of key importance to public health, as well as disseminating prevention information and providing timely and appropriate treatment. In Bolivia, at the end of 2006 approximately 50% had AIDS at the time of diagnosis, detection having occurred late in the illness. The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Bolivia is concentrated, with prevalence rates over 5% among the at-risk population, primarily men who have sex with men. From January 1984 through October 2006, the total number of HIV/AIDS cases reported in Bolivia rose to 2 190, with 1 239 HIV and 951 AIDS cases, and underreporting estimated to be over 70% country-wide. The United National Joint Program on AIDS (UNAIDS) estimated that by the end of 2006 there would be 6 700 people living with HIV/AIDS in Bolivia. In the context of this scenario, the article describes the challenges facing the HIV/AIDS program and the strategies developed to address the epidemic in Bolivia. In addition, the UNAIDS/PAHO strategies are stressed and must get underway for HIV/AIDS prevention and control activities in the country.

Entorno epidemiológico y respuesta a la epidemia del VIH en Bolivia / Epidemiological environment and response to the HIV epidemic in Bolivia

With AIDS/HIV, early detection is of key importance to public health, as well as disseminating prevention information and providing timely and appropriate treatment. In Bolivia, at the end of 2006 approximately 50 percent had AIDS at the time of diagnosis, detection having occurred late in the illness. The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Bolivia is concentrated, with prevalence rates over 5 percent among the atrisk population, primarily men who have sex with men. From January 1984 through October 2006, the total number of HIV/AIDS cases reported in Bolivia rose to 2 190, with 1 239 HIV and 951 AIDS cases, and underreporting estimated to be over 70 percent country-wide. The United National Joint Program on AIDS (UNAIDS) estimated that by the end of 2006 there would be 6 700 people living with HIV/AIDS in Bolivia. In the context of this scenario, the article describes the challenges facing the HIV/AIDS program and the strategies developed to address the epidemic in Bolivia. In addition, the UN-AIDS/PAHO strategies are stressed and must get underway for HIV/AIDS prevention and control activities in the country.

Morphological analysis of three populations of Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari Gabaldón (Diptera: Culicidae) from Colombia.

Based on the results of comparative analyses of 1,039 specimens of several progenies of Anopheles nuneztovarifrom three localities in Colombia, eight costal wing spot patterns were observed. Patterns I and III were the most frequent: 77.96% and 11.36%, respectively. Using the diagnostic characters ratio of the length of the basal dark area of hind tarsomere II/length of hind tarsomere II, ratio of the length of the humeral pale spot/length of the pre-humeral dark spot, and the ratio of the length of the subcostal pale spot/length of the distal sector dark spot (DS-III2/Ta-III2, HP/PHD, SCP/DSD) approximately 5% of the adult females were misidentified as a species of Nyssorhynchus, different from An. nuneztovari. Approximately 5% of the specimens showed DS-III2/Ta-III2 ratio less than 0.25 (range 0.21 - 0.24), and among them 3.34% shared a HP/PHD ratio less than 1.50. Consequently, 1.52% of An. nuneztovari individuals can be misidentified as Anopheles oswaldoi. In those specimens with the DS-III2/Ta-III2 ratios higher than 0.25, 34.45% displayed SCP/DSD values greater than 0.50 and of these, 3.65% displayed HP/PHD values greater than 1.8. This combination of characters could lead one to misidentify samples of An. nuneztovari as Anopheles rangeli. Similarly, 2.43% of the females could be identified erroneously as either Anopheles aquasalis or Anopheles benarrochi. Individuals with a HP/PHD ratio greater than 2.0, could be misidentified as Anopheles trinkae, Anopheles strodei or Anopheles evansae. A distinct combination of diagnostic characters for An. nuneztovari from Colombia is proposed.