Odontogenesis-Empowered Extracellular Vesicles Safeguard Donor-Recipient Stem Cell Interplay to Support Tooth Regeneration.

Harnessing the developmental events of mesenchymal condensation to direct postnatal dental stem cell aggregation represents a cutting-edge and promising approach to tooth regeneration. Tooth avulsion is among the most prevalent and serious dental injuries, and odontogenic aggregates assembled by stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) have proven effective in revitalizing avulsed teeth after replantation in the clinical trial. However, whether and how SHED aggregates (SA) communicate with recipient components and promote synergistic tissue regeneration to support replanted teeth remains elusive. Here, it is shown that SA-mediated avulsed tooth regeneration involves periodontal restoration and recovery of recipient Gli1+ stem cells, which are mobilized and necessarily contribute to the reestablishment of the tooth-periodontal ligament-bone interface. Mechanistically, the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is revealed indispensable for the implanted SA to mobilize recipient Gli1+ cells and regenerate avulsed teeth. Furthermore, SHED aggregates-released EVs (SA-EVs) are featured with odontogenic properties linked to tissue regeneration, which enhance migration, proliferation, and differentiation of Gli1+ cells. Importantly, local application of SA-EVs per se empowers recipient Gli1+ cells and safeguards regeneration of avulsed teeth. Collectively, the findings establish a paradigm in which odontogenesis-featured EVs govern donor-recipient stem cell interplay to achieve tooth regeneration, inspiring cell-free translational regenerative strategies.

Liver-based inter-organ communication: A disease perspective.

Inter-organ communication through hormones, cytokines and extracellular vesicles (EVs) has emerged to contribute to the physiological states and pathological processes of the human body. Notably, the liver coordinates multiple tissues and organs to maintain homeostasis and maximize energy utilization, with the underlying mechanisms being unraveled in recent studies. Particularly, liver-derived EVs have been found to play a key role in regulating health and disease. As an endocrine organ, the liver has also been found to perform functions via the secretion of hepatokines. Investigating the multi-organ communication centered on the liver, especially in the manner of EVs and hepatokines, is of great importance to the diagnosis and treatment of liver-related diseases. This review summarizes the crosstalk between the liver and distant organs, including the brain, the bone, the adipose tissue and the intestine in noticeable situations. The discussion of these contents will add to a new dimension of organismal homeostasis and shed light on novel theranostics of pathologies.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived apoptotic vesicles ameliorate impaired ovarian folliculogenesis in polycystic ovary syndrome and ovarian aging by targeting WNT signaling.

Rationale: It has been emergingly recognized that apoptosis generates plenty of heterogeneous apoptotic vesicles (apoVs), which play a pivotal role in the maintenance of organ and tissue homeostasis. However, it is unknown whether apoVs influence postnatal ovarian folliculogenesis. Methods: Apoptotic pathway deficient mice including Fas mutant (Fasmut ) and Fas ligand mutant (FasLmut ) mice were used with apoV replenishment to evaluate the biological function of apoVs during ovarian folliculogenesis. Ovarian function was characterized by morphological analysis, biochemical examination and cellular assays. Mechanistical studies were assessed by combinations of transcriptomic and proteomic analysis as well as molecular assays. CYP17A1-Cre; Axin1fl /fl mice was established to verify the role of WNT signaling during ovarian folliculogenesis. Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) mice and 15-month-old mice were used with apoV replenishment to further validate the therapeutic effects of apoVs based on WNT signaling regulation. Results: We show that systemic administration of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived apoptotic vesicles (MSC-apoVs) can ameliorate impaired ovarian folliculogenesis, PCOS phenotype, and reduced birth rate in Fasmut and FasLmut mice. Mechanistically, transcriptome analysis results revealed that MSC-apoVs downregulated a number of aberrant gene expression in Fasmut mice, which were enriched by kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis in WNT signaling and sex hormone biosynthesis. Furthermore, we found that apoptotic deficiency resulted in aberrant WNT/ß-catenin activation in theca and mural granulosa cells, leading to responsive action of dickkopf1 (DKK1) in the cumulus cell and oocyte zone, which downregulated WNT/ß-catenin expression in oocytes and, therefore, impaired ovarian folliculogenesis via NPPC/cGMP/PDE3A/cAMP cascade. When WNT/ß-catenin was specially activated in theca cells of CYP17A1-Cre; Axin1fl /fl mice, the same ovarian impairment phenotypes observed in apoptosis-deficient mice were established, confirming that aberrant activation of WNT/ß-catenin in theca cells caused the impairment of ovarian folliculogenesis. We firstly revealed that apoVs delivered WNT membrane receptor inhibitor protein RNF43 to ovarian theca cells to balance follicle homeostasis through vesicle-cell membrane integration. Systemically infused RNF43-apoVs down-regulated aberrantly activated WNT/ß-catenin signaling in theca cells, contributing to ovarian functional maintenance. Since aging mice have down-regulated expression of WNT/ß-catenin in oocytes, we used MSC-apoVs to treat 15-month-old mice and found that MSC-apoVs effectively ameliorated the ovarian function and fertility capacity of these aging mice through rescuing WNT/ß-catenin expression in oocytes. Conclusion: Our studies reveal a previously unknown association between apoVs and ovarian folliculogenesis and suggest an apoV-based therapeutic approach to improve oocyte function and birth rates in PCOS and aging.

Integrating network pharmacology and experimental validation reveals therapeutic effects of D-mannose on NAFLD through mTOR suppression.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a chronic liver condition and metabolic disorder, has emerged as a significant health issue worldwide. D-mannose, a natural monosaccharide widely existing in plants and animals, has demonstrated metabolic regulatory properties. However, the effect and mechanism by which D-mannose may counteract NAFLD have not been studied. In this study, network pharmacology followed by molecular docking analysis was utilized to identify potential targets of mannose against NAFLD, and the leptin receptor-deficient, genetically obese db/db mice was employed as an animal model of NAFLD to validate the regulation of D-mannose on core targets. As a result, 67 targets of mannose are predicted associated with NAFLD, which are surprisingly centered on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Further analyses suggest that mTOR signaling is functionally enriched in potential targets of mannose treating NAFLD, and that mannose putatively binds to mTOR as a core mechanism. Expectedly, repeated oral gavage of supraphysiological D-mannose ameliorates liver steatosis of db/db mice, which is based on suppression of hepatic mTOR signaling. Moreover, daily D-mannose administration reduced hepatic expression of lipogenic regulatory genes in counteracting NAFLD. Together, these findings reveal D-mannose as an effective and potential NAFLD therapeutic through mTOR suppression, which holds translational promise.

Ptip safeguards the epigenetic control of skeletal stem cell quiescence and potency in skeletogenesis.

Stem cells remain in a quiescent state for long-term maintenance and preservation of potency; this process requires fine-tuning regulatory mechanisms. In this study, we identified the epigenetic landscape along the developmental trajectory of skeletal stem cells (SSCs) in skeletogenesis governed by a key regulator, Ptip (also known as Paxip1, Pax interaction with transcription-activation domain protein-1). Our results showed that Ptip is required for maintaining the quiescence and potency of SSCs, and loss of Ptip in type II collagen (Col2)+ progenitors causes abnormal activation and differentiation of SSCs, impaired growth plate morphogenesis, and long bone dysplasia. We also found that Ptip suppressed the glycolysis of SSCs through downregulation of phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (Pgk1) by repressing histone H3K27ac at the promoter region. Notably, inhibition of glycolysis improved the function of SSCs despite Ptip deficiency. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to establish an epigenetic framework based on Ptip, which safeguards skeletal stem cell quiescence and potency through metabolic control. This framework is expected to improve SSC-based treatments of bone developmental disorders.

Apoptotic Vesicular Metabolism Contributes to Organelle Assembly and Safeguards Liver Homeostasis and Regeneration.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Apoptosis generates plenty of membrane-bound nanovesicles, the apoptotic vesicles (apoVs), which show promise for biomedical applications. The liver serves as a significant organ for apoptotic material removal. Whether and how the liver metabolizes apoptotic vesicular products and contributes to liver health and disease is unrecognized. METHODS: apoVs were labeled and traced after intravenous infusion. Apoptosis-deficient mice by Fas mutant (Fasmut) and Caspase-3 knockout (Casp3-/-) were used with apoV replenishment to evaluate the physiological apoV function. Combinations of morphologic, biochemical, cellular, and molecular assays were applied to assess the liver while hepatocyte analysis was performed. Partial hepatectomy and acetaminophen liver failure models were established to investigate liver regeneration and disease recovery. RESULTS: We discovered that the liver is a major metabolic organ of circulatory apoVs, in which apoVs undergo endocytosis by hepatocytes via a sugar recognition system. Moreover, apoVs play an indispensable role to counteract hepatocellular injury and liver impairment in apoptosis-deficient mice upon replenishment. Surprisingly, apoVs form a chimeric organelle complex with the hepatocyte Golgi apparatus through the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor machinery, which preserves Golgi integrity, promotes microtubule acetylation by regulating α-tubulin N-acetyltransferase 1, and consequently facilitates hepatocyte cytokinesis for liver recovery. The assembly of the apoV-Golgi complex is further revealed to contribute to liver homeostasis, regeneration, and protection against acute liver failure. CONCLUSIONS: These findings establish a previously unrecognized functional and mechanistic framework that apoptosis through vesicular metabolism safeguards liver homeostasis and regeneration, which holds promise for hepatic disease therapeutics.

Region-specific sympatho-adrenergic regulation of specialized vasculature in bone homeostasis and regeneration.

Type H vessels couple angiogenesis with osteogenesis, while sympathetic cues regulate vascular and skeletal function. The crosstalk between sympathetic nerves and type H vessels in bone remains unclear. Here, we first identify close spatial connections between sympathetic nerves and type H vessels in bone, particularly in metaphysis. Sympathoexcitation, mimicked by isoproterenol (ISO) injection, reduces type H vessels and bone mass. Conversely, beta-2-adrenergic receptor (ADRB2) deficiency maintains type H vessels and bone mass in the physiological condition. In vitro experiments reveal indirect sympathetic modulation of angiogenesis via paracrine effects of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which alter the transcription of multiple angiogenic genes in endothelial cells (ECs). Furthermore, Notch signaling in ECs underlies sympathoexcitation-regulated type H vessel formation, impacting osteogenesis and bone mass. Finally, propranolol (PRO) inhibits beta-adrenergic activity and protects type H vessels and bone mass against estrogen deficiency. These findings unravel the specialized neurovascular coupling in bone homeostasis and regeneration.

miR-92a-1-5p enriched prostate cancer extracellular vesicles regulate osteoclast function via MAPK1 and FoxO1.

BACKGROUND: We have previously reported that extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from osteoblastic, osteoclastic and mixed prostate cancer cells promote osteoclast differentiation and inhibit osteoblast differentiation via transferring miR-92a-1-5p. In the present study, we focused on engineering miR-92a-1-5p into EVs and determining any therapeutic roles and mechanisms of the engineered EVs. METHODS: A stable prostate cancer cell line (MDA PCa 2b) overexpressing miR-92a-1-5p was constructed by lentivirus, and EVs were isolated by ultracentrifugation. The overexpression of miR-92a-1-5p in both cells and EVs was tested using qPCR. Osteoclast function was evaluated by Trap staining, mRNA expression of osteoclastic markers ctsk and trap, immunolabeling of CTSK and TRAP and microCT using either in vitro and in vivo assays. Target gene of miR-92a-1-5p was proved by a dual-luciferase reporter assay system. siRNAs were designed and used for transient expression in order to determine the role of downstream genes on osteoclast differentiation. RESULTS: Stable overexpression cells of miRNA-92a-5p was associated with EVs upregulating this microRNA, as confirmed by qPCR. Further, miR-92a-1-5p enriched EVs promote osteoclast differentiation in vitro by reducing MAPK1 and FoxO1 expression, associated with increased osteoclast function as shown by TRAP staining and mRNA expression of osteoclast functional genes. siRNA targeting MAPK1 or FoxO1 resulted in similar increase in osteoclast function. In vivo, the miR-92a-1-5p enriched EVs given via i.v. injection promote osteolysis, which was associated with reduction of MAPK1 and FoxO1 expression in bone marrow. CONCLUSION: These experiments suggest that miR-92a-1-5p enriched EVs regulate osteoclast function via reduction of MAPK1 and FoxO1.

Construction, Characterization, and Regenerative Application of Self-Assembled Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Aggregates.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), characterized by their self-renewal ability and multilineage differentiation potential, can be derived from various sources and are emerging as promising candidates for regenerative medicine, especially for regeneration of the tooth, bone, cartilage, and skin. The self-assembled approach of MSC aggregation, which notably constructs cell clusters mimicking the developing mesenchymal condensation, allows high-density stem cell delivery along with preserved cell-cell interactions and extracellular matrix (ECM) as the microenvironment niche. This method has been shown to enable efficient cell engraftment and survival, thus promoting the optimized application of exogenous MSCs in tissue engineering and safeguarding clinical organ regeneration. This paper provides a detailed protocol for the construction and characterization of self-assembled aggregates based on umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (UCMSCs), as well as an example of the cranial bone regenerative application. The implementation of this procedure will help guide the establishment of an efficient MSC transplantation strategy for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Apoptotic vesicles ameliorate lupus and arthritis via phosphatidylserine-mediated modulation of T cell receptor signaling.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) influence T cells in health, disease and therapy through messengers of intercellular communication including extracellular vesicles (EVs). Apoptosis is a mode of cell death that tends to promote immune tolerance, and a large number of apoptotic vesicles (apoVs) are generated from MSCs during apoptosis. In an effort to characterize these apoVs and explore their immunomodulatory potential, here we show that after replenishing them systemically, the apoV deficiency in Fas mutant mice and pathological lymphoproliferation were rescued, leading to the amelioration of inflammation and lupus activity. ApoVs directly interacted with CD4+ T cells and inhibited CD25 expression and IL-2 production in a dose-dependent manner. A broad range of Th1/2/17 subsets and cytokines including IFNγ, IL17A and IL-10 were suppressed while Foxp3+ cells were maintained. Mechanistically, exposed phosphatidylserine (PtdSer/PS) on apoVs mediated the interaction with T cells to disrupt proximal T cell receptor signaling transduction. Remarkably, administration of apoVs prevented Th17 differentiation and memory formation, and ameliorated inflammation and joint erosion in murine arthritis. Collectively, our findings unveil a previously unrecognized crosstalk between MSC apoVs and CD4+ T cells and suggest a promising therapeutic use of apoVs for autoimmune diseases.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Aggregation-Released Extracellular Vesicles Induce CD31+ EMCN+ Vessels in Skin Regeneration and Improve Diabetic Wound Healing.

The blood vessel system is essential for skin homeostasis and regeneration. While the heterogeneity of vascular endothelial cells has been emergingly revealed, whether a regeneration-relevant vessel subtype exists in skin remains unknown. Herein, a specialized vasculature in skin featured by simultaneous CD31 and EMCN expression contributing to the regeneration process is identified, the decline of which functionally underlies the impaired angiogenesis of diabetic nonhealing wounds. Moreover, enlightened by the developmental process that mesenchymal condensation induces angiogenesis, it is demonstrated that mesenchymal stem/stromal cell aggregates (CAs) provide an efficacious therapy to enhance regrowth of CD31+ EMCN+ vessels in diabetic wounds, which is surprisingly suppressed by pharmacological inhibition of extracellular vesicle (EV) release. It is further shown that CAs promote secretion of angiogenic protein-enriched EVs by proteomic analysis, which directly exert high efficacy in boosting CD31+ EMCN+ vessels and treating nonhealing diabetic wounds. These results add to the current knowledge on skin vasculature and help establish feasible strategies to benefit wound healing under diabetic condition.

Mesenchymal condensation in tooth development and regeneration: a focus on translational aspects of organogenesis.

The teeth are vertebrate-specific, highly specialized organs performing fundamental functions of mastication and speech, the maintenance of which is crucial for orofacial homeostasis and is further linked to systemic health and human psychosocial well-being. However, with limited ability for self-repair, the teeth can often be impaired by traumatic, inflammatory, and progressive insults, leading to high prevalence of tooth loss and defects worldwide. Regenerative medicine holds the promise to achieve physiological restoration of lost or damaged organs, and in particular an evolving framework of developmental engineering has pioneered functional tooth regeneration by harnessing the odontogenic program. As a key event of tooth morphogenesis, mesenchymal condensation dictates dental tissue formation and patterning through cellular self-organization and signaling interaction with the epithelium, which provides a representative to decipher organogenetic mechanisms and can be leveraged for regenerative purposes. In this review, we summarize how mesenchymal condensation spatiotemporally assembles from dental stem cells (DSCs) and sequentially mediates tooth development. We highlight condensation-mimetic engineering efforts and mechanisms based on ex vivo aggregation of DSCs, which have achieved functionally robust and physiologically relevant tooth regeneration after implantation in animals and in humans. The discussion of this aspect will add to the knowledge of development-inspired tissue engineering strategies and will offer benefits to propel clinical organ regeneration.

Proteomic analysis identifies Stomatin as a biological marker for psychological stress.

Psychological stress emerges to be a common health burden in the current society for its highly related risk of mental and physical disease outcomes. However, how the quickly-adaptive stress response process connects to the long-observed organismal alterations still remains unclear. Here, we investigated the profile of circulatory extracellular vesicles (EVs) after acute stress (AS) of restraint mice by phenotypic and proteomic analyses. We surprisingly discovered that AS-EVs demonstrated significant changes in size distribution and plasma concentration compared to control group (CN) EVs. AS-EVs were further characterized by various differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) closely associated with biological, metabolic and immune regulations and were functionally important in potentially underlying multiple diseases. Notably, we first identified the lipid raft protein Stomatin as an essential biomarker expressed on the surface of AS-EVs. These findings collectively reveal that EVs are a significant function-related liquid biopsy indicator that mediate circulation alterations impinged by psychological stress, while also supporting the idea that psychological stress-associated EV-stomatin can be used as a biomarker for potentially predicting acute stress responses and monitoring psychological status. Our study will pave an avenue for implementing routine plasma EV-based theranostics in the clinic.

Apoptotic extracellular vesicles are metabolized regulators nurturing the skin and hair.

Over 300 billion of cells die every day in the human body, producing a large number of endogenous apoptotic extracellular vesicles (apoEVs). Also, allogenic stem cell transplantation, a commonly used therapeutic approach in current clinical practice, generates exogenous apoEVs. It is well known that phagocytic cells engulf and digest apoEVs to maintain the body's homeostasis. In this study, we show that a fraction of exogenous apoEVs is metabolized in the integumentary skin and hair follicles. Mechanistically, apoEVs activate the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway to facilitate their metabolism in a wave-like pattern. The migration of apoEVs is enhanced by treadmill exercise and inhibited by tail suspension, which is associated with the mechanical force-regulated expression of DKK1 in circulation. Furthermore, we show that exogenous apoEVs promote wound healing and hair growth via activation of Wnt/ß-catenin pathway in skin and hair follicle mesenchymal stem cells. This study reveals a previously unrecognized metabolic pathway of apoEVs and opens a new avenue for exploring apoEV-based therapy for skin and hair disorders.

Isolation, Characterization, and Therapeutic Application of Extracellular Vesicles from Cultured Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous membrane nanoparticles released by most cell types, and they are increasingly recognized as physiological regulators of organismal homeostasis and important indicators of pathologies; in the meantime, their immense potential to establish accessible and controllable disease therapeutics is emerging. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can release large amounts of EVs in culture, which have shown promise to jumpstart effective tissue regeneration and facilitate extensive therapeutic applications with good scalability and reproducibility. There is a growing demand for simple and effective protocols for collecting and applying MSC-EVs. Here, a detailed protocol is provided based on differential centrifugation to isolate and characterize representative EVs from cultured human MSCs, exosomes, and microvesicles for further applications. The adaptability of this method is shown for a series of downstream approaches, such as labeling, local transplantation, and systemic injection. The implementation of this procedure will address the need for simple and reliable MSC-EVs collection and application in translational research.

Isolation and Analysis of Traceable and Functionalized Extracellular Vesicles from the Plasma and Solid Tissues.

Circulating and tissue-resident extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent promising targets as novel theranostic biomarkers, and they emerge as important players in the maintenance of organismal homeostasis and the progression of a wide spectrum of diseases. While the current research focuses on the characterization of endogenous exosomes with the endosomal origin, microvesicles blebbing from the plasma membrane have gained increasing attention in health and sickness, which are featured by an abundance of surface molecules recapitulating the membrane signature of parent cells. Here, a reproducible procedure is presented based on differential centrifugation for extracting and characterizing EVs from the plasma and solid tissues, such as the bone. The protocol further describes subsequent profiling of surface antigens and protein cargos of EVs, which are thus traceable for their derivations and identified with components related to potential function. This method will be useful for correlative, functional, and mechanistic analysis of EVs in biological, physiological, and pathological studies.

Optimized immunofluorescence staining protocol for identifying resident mesenchymal stem cells in bone using LacZ transgenic mice.

Glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 (Gli1) marks a subpopulation of endogenous mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) characterized by perivascular location. Here, we present an optimized immunofluorescence staining protocol to identify resident Gli1+ MSCs in fixed/frozen bone sections from LacZ transgenic mice. This protocol describes the preparation of fixed/frozen tissue sections and the use of LacZ immunofluorescent staining for the in vivo characterization of endogenous MSCs, regarding their specific identity and specialized niches, and is applicable to LacZ-expressing cells of diverse organs. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Chen et al. (2020).

Erratum: Resveratrol counteracts bone loss via mitofilin-mediated osteogenic improvement of mesenchymal stem cells in senescence-accelerated mice: Erratum.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.7150/thno.23620.].

Targeted inhibition of osteoclastogenesis reveals the pathogenesis and therapeutics of bone loss under sympathetic neurostress.

Sympathetic cues via the adrenergic signaling critically regulate bone homeostasis and contribute to neurostress-induced bone loss, but the mechanisms and therapeutics remain incompletely elucidated. Here, we reveal an osteoclastogenesis-centered functionally important osteopenic pathogenesis under sympatho-adrenergic activation with characterized microRNA response and efficient therapeutics. We discovered that osteoclastic miR-21 was tightly regulated by sympatho-adrenergic cues downstream the ß2-adrenergic receptor (ß2AR) signaling, critically modulated osteoclastogenesis in vivo by inhibiting programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4), and mediated detrimental effects of both isoproterenol (ISO) and chronic variable stress (CVS) on bone. Intriguingly, without affecting osteoblastic bone formation, bone protection against ISO and CVS was sufficiently achieved by a (D-Asp8)-lipid nanoparticle-mediated targeted inhibition of osteoclastic miR-21 or by clinically relevant drugs to suppress osteoclastogenesis. Collectively, these results unravel a previously underdetermined molecular and functional paradigm that osteoclastogenesis crucially contributes to sympatho-adrenergic regulation of bone and establish multiple targeted therapeutic strategies to counteract osteopenias under stresses.