A new frame-based registration algorithm.

This paper presents a new algorithm for frame registration. Our algorithm requires only that the frame be comprised of straight rods, as opposed to the N structures or an accurate frame model required by existing algorithms. The algorithm utilizes the full 3D information in the frame as well as a least squares weighting scheme to achieve highly accurate registration. We use simulated CT data to assess the accuracy of our algorithm. We compare the performance of the proposed algorithm to two commonly used algorithms. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm is comparable to the best existing techniques with knowledge of the exact mathematical frame model. For CT data corrupted with an unknown in-plane rotation or translation, the proposed technique is also comparable to the best existing techniques. However, in situations where there is a discrepancy of more than 2 mm (0.7% of the frame dimension) between the frame and the mathematical model, the proposed technique is significantly better (p < or = 0.05) than the existing techniques. The proposed algorithm can be applied to any existing frame without modification. It provides better registration accuracy and is robust against model mis-match. It allows greater flexibility on the frame structure. Lastly, it reduces the frame construction cost as adherence to a concise model is not required.

Comparison and evaluation of retrospective intermodality brain image registration techniques.

PURPOSE: The primary objective of this study is to perform a blinded evaluation of a group of retrospective image registration techniques using as a gold standard a prospective, marker-based registration method. To ensure blindedness, all retrospective registrations were performed by participants who had no knowledge of the gold standard results until after their results had been submitted. A secondary goal of the project is to evaluate the importance of correcting geometrical distortion in MR images by comparing the retrospective registration error in the rectified images, i.e., those that have had the distortion correction applied, with that of the same images before rectification. METHOD: Image volumes of three modalities (CT, MR, and PET) were obtained from patients undergoing neurosurgery at Vanderbilt University Medical Center on whom bone-implanted fiducial markers were mounted. These volumes had all traces of the markers removed and were provided via the Internet to project collaborators outside Vanderbilt, who then performed retrospective registrations on the volumes, calculating transformations from CT to MR and/ or from PET to MR. These investigators communicated their transformations again via the Internet to Vanderbilt, where the accuracy of each registration was evaluated. In this evaluation, the accuracy is measured at multiple volumes of interest (VOIs), i.e., areas in the brain that would commonly be areas of neurological interest. A VOI is defined in the MR image and its centroid c is determined. Then, the prospective registration is used to obtain the corresponding point c' in CT or PET. To this point, the retrospective registration is then applied, producing c" in MR. Statistics are gathered on the target registration error (TRE), which is the distance between the original point c and its corresponding point c". RESULTS: This article presents statistics on the TRE calculated for each registration technique in this study and provides a brief description of each technique and an estimate of both preparation and execution time needed to perform the registration. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that retrospective techniques have the potential to produce satisfactory results much of the time, but that visual inspection is necessary to guard against large errors.

Tissue ablation using an acoustic waveguide for high-intensity focused ultrasound.

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) has been shown capable of selective tissue destruction in humans, with promise as a tool for ablation of tumors, although one practical problem is reflection of sound at gas or bony interfaces within the body. We evaluated a water-filled cylindrical metal tube as a waveguide for HIFU, since such a general technique might be useful for ablation of otherwise inaccessible tumors in the body. Our studies indicate that such a waveguide is capable of propagating HIFU from a piezoelectric source, with resultant heating of tissue specimens to greater than 80 degrees C, causing focal tissue destruction.

MR geometric distortion correction for improved frame-based stereotaxic target localization accuracy.

We present a method to correct the geometric distortion caused by field inhomogeneity in MR images of patients wearing MR-compatible stereotaxic frames. Our previously published distortion correction method derives patient-dependent error maps by computing the phase-difference of 3D images acquired at different TEs. The time difference (delta TE = 4.9 ms at 1.5 T) is chosen such that the water and fat signals are in phase. However, delta TE is long enough to permit phase wraps in the difference images for frequency offsets greater than 205 Hz. Phase unwrapping techniques resolve these only for connected structures; therefore, the phase difference for fiducial rods may be off by multiples of 2 pi relative to the head. We remove this uncertainty by using an additional single 2D phase-different image with delta TE = 1 ms (during which time no phase-wraps are typically expected) to determine the correct multiple of 2 pi for each rod. We tested our method in a cadaver and in a patient using CT as the gold standard. Targets in the frame coordinates were chosen from CT and compared with their locations in MR. Localizing errors using MR compared with CT were as large as 3.7 mm before correction and were reduced to less than 1.11 mm after correction.

Registration error quantification of a surface-based multimodality image fusion system.

This paper presents a new reference data set and associated quantification methodology to assess the accuracy of registration of computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic-resonance (MR) images. Also described is a new semiautomatic surface-based system for registering and visualizing CT and MR images. The registration error of the system was determined using a reference data set that was obtained from a cadaver in which rigid fiducial tubes were inserted prior to imaging. Registration error was measured as the distance between an analytic expression for each fiducial tube in one image set and transformed samples of the corresponding tube obtained from the other. Registration was accomplished by first identifying surfaces of similar anatomic structures in each image set. A transformation that best registered these structures was determined using a nonlinear optimization procedure. Even though the root-mean-square (rms) distance at the registered surfaces was similar to that reported by other groups, it was found that rms distances for the tubes were significantly larger than the final rms distances between the registered surfaces. It was also found that minimizing rms distance at the surface did not minimize rms distance for the tubes.

A versatile system for multimodality image fusion.

This paper presents a versatile system for registering and visualizing computed tomography and magnetic resonance images. The system utilizes a semi-automatic, surface-based registration strategy which has proven useful for registering a number of different anatomical structures. A triangular mesh approximates surfaces in one image set while a set of surface points is used as a surface approximation in the other set. A non-linear optimization procedure determines the transformation that minimizes the total sum-squared perpendicular distance between triangles of the mesh and surface points. This system has been used without modification to successfully register images of the brain, spine and calcaneus.

Method for correcting magnetic resonance image distortion for frame-based stereotactic surgery, with preliminary results.

We previously described a technique for correcting patient-specific magnetic field inhomogeneity spatial distortion in magnetic resonance images (MRI), which was not applicable to patients fitted with MRI-compatible stereotactic fiducial frames. Here we describe an improvement to the technique that permits application for these patients. Measurements with a cadaver head show that this method achieves MRI stereotactic localization accuracy of 1 mm.

Characterization of spatial distortion in magnetic resonance imaging and its implications for stereotactic surgery.

The different sources of spatial distortion in magnetic resonance images are reviewed from the point of view of stereotactic target localization. The extents of the two most complex sources of spatial distortion, gradient field nonlinearities and magnetic field inhomogeneities, are discussed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Several ways by which the spatial distortion resulting from these sources can be minimized are discussed. The clinical relevance of the spatial distortion along with some strategies to minimize the localization errors in magnetic resonance-guided stereotaxy are presented.

MR susceptibility misregistration correction.

The authors present a new in vivo method to correct the nonlinear, object-shape-dependent and material-dependent spatial distortion in magnetic resonance (MR) images caused by magnetic susceptibility variations. This distortion across the air/tissue interface before and after the correction is quantified using a phantom. The results are compared to the distortion-free computed tomography (CT) images of the same phantom by fusing CT and MR images using fiducials, with a registration accuracy of better than a millimeter. The distortion at the bone/tissue boundary is negligible compared to the typical MRI (MR imaging) resolution of 1 mm, while that at the air/tissue boundary creates displacements of about 2 mm (for G(x) 3.13 mT/m). This is a significant value if MRI is to provide highly accurate geometric measurements, as in the case of target localization for stereotaxic surgery. The correction scheme provides MR images with accuracy similar to that of CT: 1 mm. A new method to estimate the magnetic susceptibility of materials from MR images is presented. The magnetic susceptibility of cortical bone is measured using a SQUID magnetometer, and is found to be -8.86 ppm (with respect to air), which is quite similar to that of tissue (-9 ppm).