Happiness and self-actualization under conditions of strain: a sample of homeless men.

Maslow's contention that happiness includes striving and is more than a hedonistic construct was tested in a sample of 146 homeless men. Since all participants were homeless, environmental experiences can be considered as largely held constant, allowing an examination of personality and happiness under conditions of strain. Principal axis factor analysis with promax and oblique rotations placed scores from the measures Unhappy-Happy and the Brief Index of Self-actualization on the same factor which supported Maslow's idea. Humanistic-existential psychology has interest in the happiness construct particularly regarding the development of human potential.

Cognitive-affective preparation for homelessness: quantitative and qualitative analyses of childhood out-of-home placement and child abuse in a sample of homeless men.

Patterns of homelessness were examined against histories of childhood out-of-home placement and abuse in a sample of 146 homeless men. It was speculated that out-of-home placement and abuse influenced needs for love and belonging and were related to preparation for adult homelessness. Main effects of a 2 x 2 (placement by abuse) multivariate analysis of variance were significant with longer periods of time since first homeless and greater lengths of a current episode of homelessness associated with childhood out-of-home placement. Homeless men who had experienced abuse as a child had more episodes of homelessness than those who had not experienced abuse. Mean Brief Index of Self-actualization scores were not different for those with out-of-home placement or abuse; however, self-actualization scores were minimally lower with greater number of homeless episodes but not with total time homeless. Case histories supported the quantitative findings that loss of feelings of belonging in childhood were preparatory for chronic homelessness.

Research on homeless men and women: existential-humanistic and clinical thinking.

Researchers interested in homeless persons have concentrated on disease, overlooking assets. The content of this paper challenges researchers to a more comprehensive view of homeless samples to include mental wellness. Recommendations for research are suggested.

Construct validity of the physical Self-Efficacy Scale for a black sample: implications for health educators.

Principal components factor analysis of the Physical Self-efficacy Scale and measures of cardiorespiratory function, flexibility, muscle strength and endurance, and a rating of perceived health were calculated for a sample of 138 black undergraduates. Physical Self-efficacy Scale scores were organized into a factor that represented outcomes of fitness in support of the construct validity of the test. Additional evidence of validity was found in application of multiple regression analysis which indicated that nondominant hand-grip strength and sit and reach were significant physical predictors of efficacy scores. We discuss implications of this research for health educators.

What have you learned from your homeless experience? A phenomenological approach for counseling unsheltered homeless men.

Field notes were obtained from 145 unsheltered homeless men regarding what they had learned from an experience of homelessness. Responses represented an aspect of each person's internal frame of reference. Statements about trust in self and an efficacy to survive were common themes. Findings were placed in a humanistic-existential model useful for counseling.

Principal components analysis of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale for a black sample.

Principal components analysis of an intercorrelation matrix for the Physical Self-efficacy Scale in an all black sample of 320 mostly confirmed the original validation study of Ryckman, Robbins, Thornton, and Cantrell who used a wholly white sample; however, the analysis identified items with factor loadings at criterion on more than one factor, one item that loaded on a different subscale, and additional factors. It is unknown whether differences in this sample are attributable to race or other influences. Further investigation is suggested.

Discriminant analyses of willingness to talk with a counselor and most difficult issues in the experience of unsheltered homeless men: self-actualization, loneliness, and depression.

Stepwise discriminant analyses of willingness to talk with a counselor (Wilks Lambda=.75, p<.001) and most difficult issues (Wilks Lambda=.81, p<.001) in 145 unsheltered homeless men's experience were examined using self-actualization constructs, loneliness, depression, and history-of-being-homeless variables. For example, homeless men with higher scores on loneliness, autonomy, courage, Jonah Complex, and self-acceptance were less willing to talk with a counselor. The variable, longer intervals of having a home after a first homeless episode, was associated with personal issues rather than with homeless issues. Selected participants' responses to the items, "what have you learned from your homeless experience that you could not have learned any other way" and "what would you like for me to know about your experience of homelessness," are posted to give perspective on a homeless person's internal frame of reference. This phenomenological approach indicated strengths as well as weaknesses of homeless men. Counseling programs should embrace all homeless persons including mentally well, nondrug-dependent homeless individuals.

Adaptation to homelessness: self-actualization, loneliness, and depression in street homeless men.

Adaptation to homelessness was investigated in a sample of 145 street homeless men using loneliness and depression scales and the construct of self-actualization. Principal components analysis with varimax rotation of a matrix of correlations of measures on the history of being homeless, demographic data, scores on loneliness and depression scales, and self-actualization measures gave a 3-factor model of adjustment: adaptive striving, detachment, and adaptive resources. Maslow's and Sullivan's contention that satisfying interpersonal relationships are common pathways to mental health was affirmed.

Subjective biological self and self-actualization.

Ginsburg, Rogers, and Maslow, humanistic theorists, have maintained that the self is an emergent characteristic of one's biological makeup. The relationship between physical self-efficacy as an appraisal of subjective biology and self-actualization was examined in a sample of 160 black and white participants. An r of .46 supports the association of subjective biology and self-actualization. Whereas there were no gender or racial differences in scores on self-actualization, men scored higher on physical self-efficacy and subscales of perceived physical ability and perceived self-presentation confidence.

Humanistic constructs and counseling homeless men.

The present humanistic model for counseling homeless men assumed that counseling goals evolve from each client's internal frame of reference and may include a positive adaptation to his homeless experience. The model encompasses Rogers' necessary components of psychotherapy, Sullivan's interpersonal theory of psychiatry, Adler's use of wellness and encouragement, and Privette's peak-performance contribution. Factor analysis of history of homelessness, background data, ratings of subjective health and of happiness, and scores on Jones and Crandall's Short Index of Self-actualization yielded nine factors relevant to counseling. Empirical support was reported for placing a counseling services program in a multiservice facility for homeless persons.

Black and white homeless men: differences in self-actualization, willingness to use services, history of being homeless, and subjective health ratings.

In this analysis of racial confounds in the study of homelessness and self-actualization, 100 black and 71 white homeless men from a mission and a street environment were compared to test the hypothesis that the prototypes of black and white homeless men are different. Discriminant analysis of items from the Short Index of Self-actualization of Jones and Crandall, willingness to use services, history of homelessness, and self-reported health ratings correctly classified 83.6% of black and white homeless men (Wilks' lambda = .46, p < .0001). The prototypic black homeless person and the prototypic white homeless person have strong differences so race must be evaluated in studies of such groups.