Incidence of class 1 and 2 integrases in clinical and commensal bacteria from livestock, companion animals, and exotics.

Many pathogenic and commensal organisms are multidrug resistant due to exposure to various antibiotics. Often, this antimicrobial resistance is encoded by integrons that occur on plasmids or that are integrated into the bacterial chromosome. Integrons are commonly associated with bacterial genera in the family Enterobacteriaceae. We determined that class 1 integrases were present in approximately 46% of the isolates from the family Enterobacteriaceae; class 2 integrases were present only among Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolates. Seven percent of veterinary isolates were positive for class 3 integrase by DNA-DNA hybridization but could not be confirmed to be positive by PCR. None of the veterinary isolates possessed the class 4 integrase gene. The distribution of these integrase genes was variable within the members of the family Enterobacteriaceae when some or all integrase classes were absent from a particular genus. There was also considerable variability in the distribution of these integrases within a species, depending on the animal host. Unlike the class 1 integrases, the other integrase class, intI2, appears to be more restricted in its distribution among the members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. There is also considerable variability in the distribution of the class 1 integrases within E. coli strains isolated from different food animals. The class 1 integrases are the most widely disseminated of the four classes among the members of the family Enterobacteriaceae from both the clinical and normal flora of animals. This is the first report to closely examine the distribution of class 2 integrases in members of the family Enterobacteriaceae isolated in the United States.

Rubrerythrin and rubredoxin oxidoreductase in Desulfovibrio vulgaris: a novel oxidative stress protection system.

Evidence is presented for an alternative to the superoxide dismutase (SOD)-catalase oxidative stress defense system in Desulfovibrio vulgaris (strain Hildenborough). This alternative system consists of the nonheme iron proteins, rubrerythrin (Rbr) and rubredoxin oxidoreductase (Rbo), the product of the rbo gene (also called desulfoferrodoxin). A Deltarbo strain of D. vulgaris was found to be more sensitive to internal superoxide exposure than was the wild type. Unlike Rbo, expression of plasmid-borne Rbr failed to restore the aerobic growth of a SOD-deficient strain of Escherichia coli. Conversely, plasmid-borne expression of two different Rbrs from D. vulgaris increased the viability of a catalase-deficient strain of E. coli that had been exposed to hydrogen peroxide whereas Rbo actually decreased the viability. A previously undescribed D. vulgaris gene was found to encode a protein having 50% sequence identity to that of E. coli Fe-SOD. This gene also encoded an extended N-terminal sequence with high homologies to export signal peptides of periplasmic redox proteins. The SOD activity of D. vulgaris is not affected by the absence of Rbo and is concentrated in the periplasmic fraction of cell extracts. These results are consistent with a superoxide reductase rather than SOD activity of Rbo and with a peroxidase activity of Rbr. A joint role for Rbo and Rbr as a novel cytoplasmic oxidative stress protection system in D. vulgaris and other anaerobic microorganisms is proposed.

The quality of merC, a module of the mer mosaic.

We examined a region of high variability in the mosaic mercury resistance (mer) operon of natural bacterial isolates from the primate intestinal microbiota. The region between the merP and merA genes of nine mer loci was sequenced and either the merC, the merF, or no gene was present. Two novel merC genes were identified. Overall nucleotide diversity, pi (per 100 sites), of the merC gene was greater (49.63) than adjacent merP (35.82) and merA (32.58) genes. However, the consequences of this variability for the predicted structure of the MerC protein are limited and putative functional elements (metal-binding ligands and transmembrane domains) are strongly conserved. Comparison of codon usage of the merTP, merC, and merA genes suggests that several merC genes are not coeval with their flanking sequences. Although evidence of homologous recombination within the very variable merC genes is not apparent, the flanking regions have higher homologies than merC, and recombination appears to be driving their overall sequence identities higher. The synonymous codon usage bias (EN(C)) values suggest greater variability in expression of the merC gene than in flanking genes in six different bacterial hosts. We propose a model for the evolution of MerC as a host-dependent, adventitious module of the mer operon.

Incidence and characterization of integrons, genetic elements mediating multiple-drug resistance, in avian Escherichia coli.

Antibiotic resistance among avian bacterial isolates is common and is of great concern to the poultry industry. Approximately 36% (n = 100) of avian, pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates obtained from diseased poultry exhibited multiple-antibiotic resistance to tetracycline, oxytetracycline, streptomycin, sulfonamides, and gentamicin. Clinical avian E. coli isolates were further screened for the presence of markers for class 1 integrons, the integron recombinase intI1 and the quaternary ammonium resistance gene qacEDelta1, in order to determine the contribution of integrons to the observed multiple-antibiotic resistance phenotypes. Sixty-three percent of the clinical isolates were positive for the class 1 integron markers intI1 and qacEDelta1. PCR analysis with the conserved class 1 integron primers yielded amplicons of approximately 1 kb from E. coli isolates positive for intI1 and qacEDelta1. These PCR amplicons contained the spectinomycin-streptomycin resistance gene aadA1. Further characterization of the identified integrons revealed that many were part of the transposon Tn21, a genetic element that encodes both antibiotic resistance and heavy-metal resistance to mercuric compounds. Fifty percent of the clinical isolates positive for the integron marker gene intI1 as well as for the qacEDelta1 and aadA1 cassettes also contained the mercury reductase gene merA. The correlation between the presence of the merA gene with that of the integrase and antibiotic resistance genes suggests that these integrons are located in Tn21. The presence of these elements among avian E. coli isolates of diverse genetic makeup as well as in Salmonella suggests the mobility of Tn21 among pathogens in humans as well as poultry.

Transposon Tn21, flagship of the floating genome.

The transposon Tn21 and a group of closely related transposons (the Tn21 family) are involved in the global dissemination of antibiotic resistance determinants in gram-negative facultative bacteria. The molecular basis for their involvement is carriage by the Tn21 family of a mobile DNA element (the integron) encoding a site-specific system for the acquisition of multiple antibiotic resistance genes. The paradigm example, Tn21, also carries genes for its own transposition and a mercury resistance (mer) operon. We have compiled the entire 19,671-bp sequence of Tn21 and assessed the possible origins and functions of the genes it contains. Our assessment adds molecular detail to previous models of the evolution of Tn21 and is consistent with the insertion of the integron In2 into an ancestral Tn501-like mer transposon. Codon usage analysis indicates distinct host origins for the ancestral mer operon, the integron, and the gene cassette and two insertion sequences which lie within the integron. The sole gene of unknown function in the integron, orf5, resembles a puromycin-modifying enzyme from an antibiotic producing bacterium. A possible seventh gene in the mer operon (merE), perhaps with a role in Hg(II) transport, lies in the junction between the integron and the mer operon. Analysis of the region interrupted by insertion of the integron suggests that the putative transposition regulator, tnpM, is the C-terminal vestige of a tyrosine kinase sensor present in the ancestral mer transposon. The extensive dissemination of the Tn21 family may have resulted from the fortuitous association of a genetic element for accumulating multiple antibiotic resistances (the integron) with one conferring resistance to a toxic metal at a time when clinical, agricultural, and industrial practices were rapidly increasing the exposure to both types of selective agents. The compendium offered here will provide a reference point for ongoing observations of related elements in multiply resistant strains emerging worldwide.

Phytoremediation of methylmercury pollution: merB expression in Arabidopsis thaliana confers resistance to organomercurials.

Methylmercury is an environmental toxicant that biomagnifies and causes severe neurological degeneration in animals. It is produced by bacteria in soils and sediments that have been contaminated with mercury. To explore the potential of plants to extract and detoxify this chemical, we engineered a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, to express a modified bacterial gene, merBpe, encoding organomercurial lyase (MerB) under control of a plant promoter. MerB catalyzes the protonolysis of the carbon---mercury bond, removing the organic ligand and releasing Hg(II), a less mobile mercury species. Transgenic plants expressing merBpe grew vigorously on a wide range of concentrations of monomethylmercuric chloride and phenylmercuric acetate. Plants lacking the merBpe gene were severely inhibited or died at the same organomercurial concentrations. Six independently isolated transgenic lines produced merBpe mRNA and MerB protein at levels that varied over a 10- to 15-fold range, and even the lowest levels of merBpe expression conferred resistance to organomercurials. Our work suggests that native macrophytes (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses) engineered to express merBpe may be used to degrade methylmercury at polluted sites and sequester Hg(II) for later removal.

Cd(II)-responsive and constitutive mutants implicate a novel domain in MerR.

Expression of the Tn21 mercury resistance (mer) operon is controlled by a metal-sensing repressor-activator, MerR. When present, MerR always binds to the same position on the DNA (the operator merO), repressing transcription of the structural genes merTPCAD in the absence of Hg(II) and inducing their transcription in the presence of Hg(II). Although it has two potential binding sites, the purified MerR homodimer binds only one Hg(II) ion, employing Cys82 from one monomer and Cys117 and Cys126 from the other. When MerR binds Hg(II), it changes allosterically and also distorts the merO DNA to facilitate transcriptional initiation by sigma70 RNA polymerase. Wild-type MerR is highly specific for Hg(II) and is 100- and 1, 000-fold less responsive to the chemically related group 12 metals, Cd(II) and Zn(II), respectively. We sought merR mutants that respond to Cd(II) and obtained 11 Cd(II)-responsive and 5 constitutive mutants. The Cd(II)-responsive mutants, most of which had only single-residue replacements, were also repression deficient and still Hg(II) responsive but, like the wild type, were completely unresponsive to Zn(II). None of the Cd(II)-responsive mutations occurred in the DNA binding domain or replaced any of the key Cys residues. Five Cd(II)-responsive single mutations lie in the antiparallel coiled-coil domain between Cys82 and Cys117 which constitutes the dimer interface. These mutations identify 10 new positions whose alteration significantly affect MerR's metal responsiveness or its repressor function. They give rise to specific predictions for how MerR distinguishes group 12 metals, and they refine our model of the novel domain structure of MerR. Secondary-structure predictions suggest that certain elements of this model also apply to other MerR family regulators.

MerR cross-links to the alpha, beta, and sigma 70 subunits of RNA polymerase in the preinitiation complex at the merTPCAD promoter.

MerR, the metalloregulator of the mercury resistance (mer) operon, binds the operator (merO)between -10 and -35 of the merTPCAD promoter (PT) and sequesters RNA polymerase (RNAP) in a closed complex. MerR represses PT until Hg(II) induces it to underwind merO DNA and thus facilitate open complex formation. We used cross-linking to determine if direct contacts between MerR and RNAP also occur during this process. MerR cross-linked to the alpha, beta, and sigma70 subunits of RNAP alone, indicating stable contacts which were further stabilized upon forming the preinitiation complex at PT. Hg(II) did not eliminate any of the MerR-RNAP cross-links but did increase the relative abundance of a MerR dimer conformer. Interference by MerR with self-cross-links among RNAP subunits and the formation of an electrophoretically stable association between MerR and RNAP also indicated MerR-RNAP interactions. This is the first evidence for stable physical contacts between MerR and RNAP and for a Hg(II)-induced allosteric change in MerR in the transcription-competent complex.

The core metal-recognition domain of MerR.

MerR, the metalloregulatory protein of the mercury-resistance operon (mer) has unusually high affinity and specificity for ionic mercury, Hg(II). Prior genetic and biochemical evidence suggested that the protein has a structure consisting of an N-terminal DNA binding domain, a C-terminal Hg(II)-binding domain, and an intervening region involved with communication between these two domains. We have characterized a series of MerR deletion mutants and found that as little as 30% of the protein (residues 80-128) forms a stable dimer and retains high affinity for Hg(II). Biophysical measures indicate that this minimal Hg(II)-binding domain assumes the structural characteristics of the wild-type full-length protein both in the Hg(II) center itself and in an immediately adjacent helical protein domain. Our observations are consistent with the core Hg(II)-binding domain of the MerR dimer being constituted by a pair of antiparallel helices (possibly in a coiled-coil conformation) comprised of residues cysteine 82 through cysteine 117 from each monomer followed by a flexible loop through residue cysteine 126. These antiparallel helices would have a potential Hg(II)-binding site at each end. However, just as in the full-length protein, only one of these potential binding sites in the deleted proteins actually binds Hg(II).

Bacterial oxidation of mercury metal vapor, Hg(0).

We used metalloregulated luciferase reporter fusions and spectroscopic quantification of soluble Hg(II) to determine that the hydroperoxidase-catalase, KatG, of Escherichia coli can oxidize monatomic elemental mercury vapor, Hg(0), to the water-soluble, ionic form, Hg(II). A strain with a mutation in katG and a strain overproducing KatG were used to demonstrate that the amount of Hg(II) formed is proportional to the catalase activity. Hg(0) oxidation was much decreased in stationary-phase cells of a strain lacking KatG, suggesting that the monofunctional hydroperoxidase KatE is less effective at this reaction. Unexpectedly, Hg(0) oxidation also occurred in a strain lacking both KatE and KatG, suggesting that activities other than hydroperoxidases may carry out this reaction. Two typical soil bacteria, Bacillus and Streptomyces, also oxidize Hg(0) to Hg(II). These observations establish for the first time that bacteria can contribute, as do mammals and plants, to the oxidative phase of the global Hg cycle.

Association of mercury resistance with antibiotic resistance in the gram-negative fecal bacteria of primates.

Gram-negative fecal bacterial from three longitudinal Hg exposure experiments and from two independent survey collections were examined for their carriage of the mercury resistance (mer) locus. The occurrence of antibiotic resistance was also assessed in both mercury-resistant (Hgr) and mercury-susceptible (Hgs) isolates from the same collections. The longitudinal studies involved exposure of the intestinal flora to Hg released from amalgam "silver" dental restorations in six monkeys. Hgr strains were recovered before the installation of amalgams, and frequently these became the dominant strains while amalgams were installed. Such persistent Hgr strains always carried the same mer locus throughout the experiments. In both the longitudinal and survey collections, certain mer loci were preferentially associated with one genus, whereas other mer loci were recovered from many genera. In general, strains with any mer locus were more likely to be multiresistant than were strains without mer loci; this clustering tendency was also seen for antibiotic resistance genes. However, the association of antibiotic multiresistance with mer loci was not random; regardless of source, certain mer loci occurred in highly multiresistant strains (with as many as seven antibiotic resistances), whereas other mer loci were found in strains without any antibiotic resistance. The majority of highly multiresistant Hgr strains also carried genes characteristic of an integron, a novel genetic element which enables the formation of tandem arrays of antibiotic resistance genes. Hgr strains lacking antibiotic resistance showed no evidence of integron components.

A rubrerythrin operon and nigerythrin gene in Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Hildenborough).

Rubrerythrin is a nonheme iron protein of unknown function isolated from Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Hildenborough). We have sequenced a 3.3-kbp Sal1 fragment of D. vulgaris chromosomal DNA containing the rubrerythrin gene, rbr, identified additional open reading frames (ORFs) adjacent to rbr, and shown that these ORFs are part of a transcriptional unit containing rbr. One ORF, designated fur, lies just upstream of rbr and encodes a 128-amino-acid-residue protein which shows homology to Fur (ferric uptake regulatory) proteins from other purple bacteria. The other ORF, designated rdl, lies just downstream of rbr and encodes a 74-residue protein with significant sequence homology to rubredoxins but with a different number and spacing of cysteine residues. Overexpression of rdl in Escherichia coli yielded a protein, Rdl, which has spectroscopic properties and iron content consistent with one Fe3+(SCys)4 site per polypeptide but is clearly distinct from both rubrerythrin and a related protein, nigerythrin. Northern analysis indicated that fur, rbr, and rdl were each present on a transcript of 1.3 kb; i.e., these three genes are cotranscribed. Because D. vulgaris nigerythrin appears to be closely related to rubrerythrin, and its function is also unknown, we cloned and sequenced the gene encoding nigerythrin, ngr. The amino acid sequence of nigerythrin is 33% identical to that of rubrerythrin, and all residues which furnish iron ligands to both the FeS4 and diiron-oxo sites in rubrerythrin are conserved in nigerythrin. Despite the close resemblance of these two proteins, ngr was found to be no closer than 7 kb to rbr on the D. vulgaris chromosome, and Northern analysis showed that, in contrast to rbr, ngr is not cotranscribed with other genes. Possible redox-linked functions for rubrerythrin and nigerythrin in iron homeostasis are proposed.

Mutations in the alpha and sigma-70 subunits of RNA polymerase affect expression of the mer operon.

The mercury resistance (mer) operon is transcribed from overlapping, divergent promoters: PR for the regulatory gene merR and P(TPCAD) for the structural genes merTPCAD. The dyadic binding site for MerR lies within the 19-bp spacer of the sigma70-dependent P(TPCAD). Unlike typical repressors, MerR does not exclude RNA polymerase from P(TPCAD) but rather forms an inactive complex with RNA polymerase at P(TPCAD) prior to addition of the inducer, the mercuric ion Hg(II). In this "active repression" complex, MerR prevents transcriptional initiation at merTPCAD until Hg(II) is added. When Hg(II) is added, MerR remains bound to the same position and activates transcription of merTPCAD by distorting the DNA of the spacer region. MerR also represses its own transcription from PR regardless of the presence or absence of Hg(II). To explore the role of MerR-RNA polymerase in these processes, we examined mutations in the sigma70 and alpha subunits of RNA polymerase, mutations known to influence other activators but not to impair transcription generally. We assessed the effects of these sigma70 and alpha mutants on unregulated P(TPCAD) and PR transcription (i.e., MerR-independent transcription) and on the two MerR-dependent processes: repression of P(TPCAD) and of PR and Hg(ll)-induced activation of P(TPCAD). Among the MerR-independent effects, we found that mutations in regions 2.1 and 4.2 of rpoD suppress the deleterious effects of nonoptimal promoter spacing. Some C-terminal rpoA mutants also have this property to a considerably lesser degree. Certain "spacer suppressor" variants of rpoA and of rpoD also interfere with the MerR-dependent repression of P(TPCAD) and PR. MerR-Hg(II)-mediated transcriptional activation of P(TPCAD) was also affected in an allele-specific manner by substitutions at position 596 of sigma70 and at positions 311 and 323 of alpha. Thus, certain changes in sigma70 or alpha render them either more or less effective in participating in the topologically novel transcriptional control effected by MerR at the divergent mer operons.

Phylogeny of mercury resistance (mer) operons of gram-negative bacteria isolated from the fecal flora of primates.

Nine polymorphic mer loci carried by 185 gram-negative fecal bacterial strains from humans and nonhuman primates are described. The loci were characterized with specific intragenic and intergenic PCR primers to amplify distinct regions covering approximately 80% of the typical gram-negative mer locus. These loci were grouped phylogenetically with respect to each other and with respect to seven previously sequenced mer operons from gram-negative bacteria (the latter designated loci 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, and delta 8 by us here for the purpose of this analysis). Six of the mer loci recovered from primates are similar either to these previously sequenced mer loci or to another locus recently observed in environmental isolates (locus 4), and three are novel (loci 5, 9, and 10). We have observed merC, or a merC-like gene, or merF on the 5' side of merA in all of the loci except that of Tn501 (here designated mer locus 6). The merB gene was observed occasionally, always on the 3' side of merA. Unlike the initial example of a merB-containing mer locus carried by plasmid pDU1358 (locus 8), all the natural primate loci carrying merB also had large deletions of the central region of the operon (and were therefore designated locus delta 8). Four of the loci we describe (loci 2, 5, 9, and 10) have no region of homology to merB from pDU1358 and yet strains carrying them were phenylmercury resistant. Two of these loci (loci 5 and 10) also lacked merD, the putative secondary regulator of operon expression. Phylogenetic comparison of character states derived from PCR product data grouped those loci which have merC into one clade; these are locus 1 (including Tn21), locus 3, and locus 4. The mer loci which lack merC grouped into a second clade: locus 6 (including Tn501) and locus 2. Outlying groups lacked merD or possessed merB. While these mer operons are characterized by considerable polymorphism, our ability to discern coherent clades suggests that recombination is not entirely random and indeed may be focused on the immediate 5' and 3' proximal regions of merA. Our observations confirm and extend the idea that the mer operon is a genetic mosaic and has a predominance of insertions and/or deletions of functional genes immediately before and after the merA gene. chi sites are found in several of the sequenced operons and may be involved in the abundant reassortments we observe for mer genes.

Mercuric ion reduction and resistance in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants expressing a modified bacterial merA gene.

With global heavy metal contamination increasing, plants that can process heavy metals might provide efficient and ecologically sound approaches to sequestration and removal. Mercuric ion reductase, MerA, converts toxic Hg2+ to the less toxic, relatively inert metallic mercury (Hg0) The bacterial merA sequence is rich in CpG dinucleotides and has a highly skewed codon usage, both of which are particularly unfavorable to efficient expression in plants. We constructed a mutagenized merA sequence, merApe9, modifying the flanking region and 9% of the coding region and placing this sequence under control of plant regulatory elements. Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana seeds expressing merApe9 germinated, and these seedlings grew, flowered, and set seed on medium containing HgCl2 concentrations of 25-100 microM (5-20 ppm), levels toxic to several controls. Transgenic merApe9 seedlings evolved considerable amounts of Hg0 relative to control plants. The rate of mercury evolution and the level of resistance were proportional to the steady-state mRNA level, confirming that resistance was due to expression of the MerApe9 enzyme. Plants and bacteria expressing merApe9 were also resistant to toxic levels of Au3+. These and other data suggest that there are potentially viable molecular genetic approaches to the phytoremediation of metal ion pollution.

Mercury exposure from "silver" tooth fillings: emerging evidence questions a traditional dental paradigm.

For more than 160 years dentistry has used silver amalgam, which contains approximately 50% Hg metal, as the preferred tooth filling material. During the past decade medical research has demonstrated that this Hg is continuously released as vapor into mouth air; then it is inhaled, absorbed into body tissues, oxidized to ionic Hg, and finally covalently bound to cell proteins. Animal and human experiments demonstrate that the uptake, tissue distribution, and excretion of amalgam Hg is significant, and that dental amalgam is the major contributing source to Hg body burden in humans. Current research on the pathophysiological effects of amalgam Hg has focused upon the immune system, renal system, oral and intestinal bacteria, reproductive system, and the central nervous system. Research evidence does not support the notion of amalgam safety.

The dental amalgam mercury controversy--inorganic mercury and the CNS; genetic linkage of mercury and antibiotic resistances in intestinal bacteria.

Mercury (Hg) vapor exposure from dental amalgam has been demonstrated to exceed the sum of all other exposure sources. Therefore the effects of inorganic Hg exposure upon cell function in the brain and in the intestinal bacteria have recently been examined. In rats we demonstrate that ADP-ribosylation of tubulin and actin brain proteins is markedly inhibited, and that ionic Hg can thus alter a neurochemical reaction involved with maintaining neuron membrane structure. In monkeys we show that Hg, specifically from amalgam, will enrich the intestinal flora with Hg-resistant bacterial species which in turn also become resistant to antibiotics.