Evolution of medical education in India: The impact of colonialism.

The cross-cultural exchanges between the people of India and their colonial rulers provides a fascinating insight into how these encounters shaped medicine and medical education in India. This article traces the history of how Indian medicine was transformed in the backdrop of colonialism and hegemony. It goes on to show how six decades after independence, we have have still been unable to convincingly shrug off the colonial yoke. India needs to work out a national medical curriculum which caters to our country's needs. A symbiotic relationship needs to be developed between the indigenous and allopathic systems of medicine.

Is there need for a transformational change to overcome the current problems with postgraduate medical education in India?

In spite of the existence of a dual system of postgraduation, one under the Medical Council of India (MCI) and the other on a parallel track under the National Board of Examinations, postgraduate medical education in India is beset with several problems. For example, the curriculum has not been revised comprehensively for several decades. The diploma course under the MCI has become unpopular and is largely a temporary refuge for those who do not get admission to degree courses. The level of skills of the outgoing graduate is falling and the increase in the number of seats is taking place in a haphazard manner, without reference to the needs. In spite of increase in seats, there is a shortage of specialists at the secondary and tertiary care levels, especially in medical colleges, to share teaching responsibilities. Further, the distribution of specialists is skewed, with some states having far more than others. To remedy these ills and fulfil the requirements of the country over the next two decades, a working group appointed by the erstwhile governors of the MCI was asked to suggest suitable modifications to the existing postgraduate system. After an extensive review of the lacunae in the present system, the needs at various levels and the pattern of postgraduate education in other countries, it was felt that a competency-based model of a 2-year postgraduate course across all specialties, the use of offsite facilities for training and a criterion-based evaluation system entailing continuous monitoring would go a long way to correct some of the deficiencies of the existing system. The details of the proposal and its merits are outlined for wider discussion and to serve as a feedback to the regulatory agencies engaged in the task of improving the medical education system in India. We feel that the adoption of the proposed system would go a long way in improving career options, increasing the availability of teachers and dissemination of specialists to the secondary and primary levels, and improving the quality of outgoing postgraduates.

Interns' perspectives about communicating bad news to patients: a qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: Communicating bad news to patients and families is an essential skill for physicians but can be difficult for interns. Very little is known about skills in this area for interns in developing countries. METHOD: Two focus groups, consisting of a total of 12 interns, were conducted in the Seth G.S. Medical College and KEM Hospital in Mumbai, India. The grounded theory approach was used to identify common themes and concepts, which related to: (1) barriers in communicating bad news, (2) interns' confidence in communicating bad news, (3) interns' perceptions about their need for such training and (4) interns' suggested methods for training. RESULTS: Interns described barriers in time constraints, language, their personal fears, patients' illiteracy, crowded wards with no privacy and lack of training. All interns lacked confidence in breaking news of death, but seven were confident in breaking bad news about chronic diseases or cancers. Subjects reported they had received very little classroom teaching or formal instruction in this area, though they had had opportunities to observe a few instances of breaking bad news. They expressed need for increased focus on communication skills curriculum in the form of case discussions, workshops and small group teaching, in addition to clinical observation. CONCLUSIONS: Interns in our school in Mumbai reported inadequate training and low comfort and skill in communicating bad news and expressed need for focused training.

Influence of timing on performance of laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute biliary pancreatitis.

AIM: Gallstone disease is the most common cause of acute pancreatitis. Cholecystectomy is mandatory to avoid recurrence of pancreatitis. Our objective was to evaluate the results of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) in patients with gall-stone induced pancreatitis. METHODS: All patients presenting to us within the time frame from February 2004 to June 2008 with acute biliary pancreatitis were included in the study. The severity of pancreatitis was assessed by Ranson's criteria. ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy was performed when the common bile duct (CBD) was dilated (>6 mm) with either calculi or sludge as seen on imaging. Patients with successful ERCP with predicted demanding laparoscopic cholecystectomy were discharged instead for an elective LC, 4-6 weeks later. Patients with mild pancreatitis (with Ranson's score of 3 or less) and predicted uncomplicated LC underwent surgery at the same admission. The difficulty of the procedure was determined by the presence of adhesions in the gallbladder area, dissection in Calot's triangle, tackling the dilated cystic duct, intra-operative bleeding, and the need for a drain. RESULTS: A total of 26 patients (12 male and 14 female; age range 23-75 years) with acute biliary pancreatitis comprised the study group. Eleven patients with suspected choledocholithiasis underwent ERCP and clearance of the CBD was done in all of them. Nine patients (2 ERCP and 7 non-ERCP) underwent early LC in the same admission. Seventeen patients (9 ERCP and 8 non-ERCP) were predicted as difficult cases for LC and underwent delayed LC. No patient had recurrent pancreatitis in the interval period. CONCLUSION: There was no significant difference in the operative difficulty between early and delayed LC when patients were selected for timing of LC based on pre-defined criteria.

Varied presentations of gastrointestinal stromal tumour.

Gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GIST) are soft tissue tumours arising from the mesenchyma in the gastrointestinal tract. These are rare tumours. However, over the past few years with the better understanding of the pathogenesis of GIST and better imaging facilities, the diagnosis is made more frequently. The characteristic diagnostic feature of GIST is the expression of CD34 and receptor tyrosine kinase KIT, CD117 by these tumours. The use of tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib mesylate has led to improved outcome. The presentation of GIST however remains non-specific, and varies depending upon the size and the organ of origin. We present a series of four cases of GIST with varied presentation.

Laparoscopic splenectomy using conventional instruments.

INTRODUCTION: Laparoscopic splenectomy (LS) is an accepted procedure for elective splenectomy. Advancement in technology has extended the possibility of LS in massive splenomegaly [Choy et al., J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 14(4), 197-200 (2004)], trauma [Ren et al., Surg Endosc 15(3), 324 (2001); Mostafa et al., Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech 12(4), 283-286 (2002)], and cirrhosis with portal hypertension [Hashizume et al., Hepatogastroenterology 49(45), 847-852 (2002)]. In a developing country, these advanced gadgets may not be always available. We performed LS using conventional and reusable instruments in a public teaching the hospital without the use of the advanced technology. The technique of LS and the outcome in these patients is reported. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients undergoing LS for various hematological disorders from 1998 to 2004 were included. Electrocoagulation, clips, and intracorporeal knotting were the techniques used for tackling short-gastric vessels and splenic pedicle. Specimen was delivered through a Pfannensteil incision. RESULTS: A total of 26 patients underwent LS. Twenty-two (85%) of patients had spleen size more than 500 g (average weight being 942.55 g). Mean operative time was 214 min (45-390 min). The conversion rate was 11.5% (n = 3). Average duration of stay was 5.65 days (3-30 days). Accessory spleen was detected and successfully removed in two patients. One patient developed subphrenic abscess. There was no mortality. There was no recurrence of hematological disease. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopic splenectomy using conventional equipment and instruments is safe and effective. Advanced technology has a definite advantage but is not a deterrent to the practice of LS.

Laparoscopic orchidectomy for undescended testis in adults.

BACKGROUND: Impalpable testis is a significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenge in adults, for both radiologist and surgeons, with few reports in literature addressing this problem in adults. Laparoscopy is a reliable and definitive procedure obviating the necessity of advance investigation and subsequent inguinal exploration in adults. AIMS: To study the utility of laparoscopy as combined diagnostic and therapeutic modality for undescended testis in adults. SETTINGS AND DESIGN: Prospective study from a single surgical unit of a large tertiary referral centre during August 2000 to January 2002. METHODS AND MATERIAL: Nine patients of unilateral undescended testis with average age 22.7 years (range 13-31 years) underwent diagnostic laparoscopy and orchidectomy subsequent to detailed clinical, ultrasound and examination under anaesthesia (EUA) procedure. All patients were operated with one 10 mm umbilical camera port, one suprapubic port and 1 lateral port. RESULTS: None of the patients had palpable testis or an inguinal cough impulse on clinical examination and during EUA. In only 3(33.3%) patients, the ultrasound could locate the testis situated at the deep ring. On laparoscopy all testes were identified, 4 were present at the deep ring, 3 were intra-abdominal and 2 had blind ending vas entering the deep ring. Mesh plug was inserted in the internal ring in these 2 patients, after dissecting the peritoneum. None of the patients had intra or post-operative complications and all were discharged on the next day. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopy is one of the most satisfactory methods for the diagnosis and management of non-palpable testis in adult cryptorchid patients.

Role of computed tomography in the diagnosis of rib and lung involvement in tuberculous retromammary abscesses.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the role of computed tomography (CT) in the diagnosis of rib and lung involvement in tuberculous abscess in the retromammary region. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: Eight patients with tuberculous retromammary abscess were examined by CT and the findings were evaluated. A cold abscess (purulent collection with absence of acute inflammation) was aspirated in all cases. Diagnosis was confirmed by acid-fast bacillus culture, or histologic examination. RESULTS: CT showed a relatively well marginated, inhomogeneous, hypodense lesions in all eight cases. Following administration of intravenous contrast medium, these lesions showed enhancing walls, suggestive of an infective collection. Lung involvement was seen in one patient. A direct communication from the retromammary lesion through the thoracic wall into the pleura was seen in five cases. In four cases destroyed rib fragments within the abscess were noted. CONCLUSION: A tuberculous abscess in the retromammary region is usually shown on CT as a focal, well-marginated, inhomogeneous, hypodense lesion with a surrounding enhancing rim. A direct communication with the pleura, a destroyed rib fragment in the abscess, and associated lung involvement may be revealed by CT.

Subcutaneous rupture of hepatic hydatid cyst.

Hepatic hydatid cysts are common entities. We present an unusual case of a hepatic hydatid cyst which had ruptured into the subcutaneous tissues of the anterior abdominal wall. The possible causes, imaging features and recent literature are reviewed.

Isolated splenic lymphoma: an elusive preoperative diagnosis.

Four patients underwent splenectomy for various clinical and radiological diagnoses and were found to have primary splenic lymphoma at surgery and histology. The diagnosis was classical Hodgkin's lymphoma, mixed cellularity type (one case); marginal zone B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (one case); and large B cell type non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (two cases). The first two patients had multiple nodules in the spleen measuring 0.1-0.5 cm while large cell lymphomas had large nodules (largest measuring 11 cm x 7 cm x 4 cm). The diagnoses were confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis. Mean follow up of these patients was 11 months; all patients received chemotherapy. One patient died, of causes not related to the disease process.

Necrotising perineal infection: a fatal outcome of ischiorectal fossa abscesses.

INTRODUCTION: Necrotizing perineal infection or Fournier's gangrene is an uncommon but lethal complication of ischiorectal fossa abscesses. It is associated with a high mortality, especially in diabetics and immunocompromised individuals. Attempts have been made to study factors which could serve as prognostic indicators. The role of faecal diversion has not been clearly determined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The medical records of 8 patients who presented with necrotizing perineal infection as a complication of ischiorectal fossa abscesses were reviewed. Various parameters were studied to see if any of them could serve as predictors of outcome. Mean surface area of involvement was calculated using modified burns assessment criteria. To study the effect of colostomy on the general condition of the patient the physiological and biochemical parameters before and after the procedure were compared. Statistical analysis was done using the unpaired and paired 't' tests. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients was 50.6 +/- 10.3 years. Five patients were diabetic, of whom four died; all the non-diabetics survived. The mean surface area of involvement was 5.1 +/- 0.75%, among the survivors, and 9.6 +/- 3.4% among the non-survivors. Colostomy was performed in four patients one of whom died. While in one patient the colostomy was created along with the initial radical debridement, in three other patients it was formed on days three, five and five, respectively. There was a significant improvement in their general status and biological parameters. All patients with testicular involvement died. CONCLUSION: Evidence of systemic sepsis at presentation, extent of tissue and testicular involvement, a low haematocrit, a high blood urea and creatinine and a low serum albumin, were associated with a higher mortality. Prompt recognition of the condition, urgent radical surgical debridement and the use of appropriate antibiotics are the mainstays of management. Formation of a diverting colostomy appears to favour survival.

Giant prosthesis for reinforcement of visceral sac for complex bilateral and recurrent inguinal hernias: a prospective evaluation.

AIMS: To evaluate giant prosthesis for reinforcement of visceral sac (GPRVS) as a treatment for complex bilateral and recurrent inguinal hernias. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The prospective study carried out in a single surgical unit at a tertiary health care center involved consecutive series of 31 patients with complex bilateral and recurrent inguinal hernias who underwent GPRVS. All were men and the mean age was 58 years (range 49-95 years). Factors predicting high risk for recurrence included a large hernia ( greater, similar5cms, 32%, 10/31 patients), failure of one or more previous repairs (45%, 14/31 patients), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (25%, 8/31 patients) and poor muscle tone (70%, 22/31 patients). Operative time, length of postoperative stay, complications and death were the main outcome measures. RESULTS: Mean -/+ SEM operative time was 65 -/+ 11 minutes (range 45-115 minutes). Mean -/+ SEM length of stay was 3.5 -/+ 0.7 days (range 2-5 days). There were 4 minor complications, but no mesh infections and death. Follow up was obtained for a mean period of 14.6 months (range 12-23 months); there were no recurrences. CONCLUSION: GPRVS provides a definitive and safe cure for repair of complex bilateral and recurrent inguinal hernias because of its simplicity, ease of the procedure, good results and low recurrence rate.

Paraesophageal mediastinal drainage with diversion for delayed presentation of esophageal perforation.

Esophageal perforation is a serious condition; a delay of more than 48 hours in initiation of treatment leads to increased morbidity and mortality. Management of such patients is a surgical dilemma. We successfully managed 4 patients (2-iatrogenic, 1-tuberculous, 1-Boerhaave's syndrome) with delayed presentation of esophageal perforation by esophageal exclusion and paraesophageal mediastinal drainage, achieving good control of mediastinal sepsis, healing of perforation and at the same time avoiding thoracotomy and subsequent second surgery.

Shouldice's herniorrhaphy versus Moloney's darn herniorrhaphy in young patients (a prospective randomised study).

AIMS: Shouldice's repair (SR) and Moloney's darn repair (DR) are commonly practised repairs for hernias in the young age group with acceptably low recurrence rates. The SR is considered technically challenging and difficult, while the DR is gaining popularity in recent years. Therefore, there is a need to compare these repairs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: To compare these techniques a total of 50 cases (age group 18-40 years) were randomised to two groups (SR 25, DR 25). These were well matched for age, the side and the type of hernia. Both groups were studied with respect to operative time; postoperative pain at 6,12 and 24 hours (evaluated by pain scale 1-10) need for analgesia, ambulation (evaluated by a four-point scale), complications and return to work. RESULTS: The SR required a longer time (average 81 minutes) compared to DR (average 43 minutes). Patients undergoing SR complained of pain of a higher scale at 6, 12 and 24 hours post surgery and had a significant higher need for analgesia on day 1 and 2 (p < 0.05). Ambulation grades were significantly better in the DR group on the first postoperative day (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in the two groups with respect to postoperative complications, return to work, and recurrences rate (2-year follow-up). CONCLUSION: The SR and DR are comparable for young patients having a primary hernia. However, DR is superior in terms of the time taken, post-operative pain, need for analgesia and early ambulation.

Isolated massive splenic peliosis.

We report a patient with isolated splenic peliosis. She presented with massive splenomegaly; contrast-enhanced CT scan showed multiple hypodense, well-circumscribed shadows in the spleen. Splenectomy specimen showed multiple cysts with white fibrous walls ranging from 1-4 cm in size, containing gelatinous fluid. The patient is asymptomatic at 6 months' follow up.