Maltreatment type differences in cortisol stress response trajectories across adolescence.

This study examined cortisol stress response trajectories across adolescence in 454 maltreated and comparison youth recruited from Los Angeles County between 2002 and 2005 (66.7% maltreated; 46.7% girls; 39.0% Latino; 37.7% Black; 12.3% Mixed or Biracial; 11.0% White; Mage = 10.9 years, SD = 1.2). Adolescents' peak activation and cortisol reactivity and recovery slopes following the Trier Social Stress Test for Children were calculated at four waves, then used to model peak activation and cortisol reactivity and recovery trajectories arrayed by age. Maltreated youth had blunted cortisol reactivity at age 9 relative to comparison youth (b = -.19, p = .02). Sexually and physically abused youth showed blunted cortisol reactivity and recovery trajectories relative to emotionally abused and neglected youth.

Associations between HPA axis reactivity and PTSD and depressive symptoms: Importance of maltreatment type and puberty.

The functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is implicated in the etiology and maintenance of depressive and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, different maltreatment experiences as well as the increased sensitivity of the HPA axis during puberty may alter associations between the HPA axis and mental health. To address these gaps, the current study examined the potential bidirectional associations between cortisol reactivity to a stressor, PTSD symptoms, and depressive symptoms among early adolescents across two time points, 1 year apart (n = 454; Mage = 10.98 at Time 1 and Mage = 12.11 at Time 2). Multiple-group path models tested the pathways between cortiol reactivity and mental health prior to and during puberty, for different types of maltreatment . Overall, the results showed that associations between cortisol output and symptoms of PTSD and depression were driven by those in the midst of puberty. Specifically, higher cortisol output at Time 1 was linked with higher levels of subsequent PTSD and depressive symptoms for neglected youth who had reached puberty. However, depressive symptoms predicted subsequent lower cortisol output for the physical abuse and emotional abuse groups. These findings demonstrate longitudinal links between cortisol, depressive symptoms, and PTSD symptoms among youth with different types of maltreatment histories and highlight the need to consider the reorganization of the stress system during puberty in order to advance our understanding of the HPA axis and mental health.

Circadian cortisol secretion in adolescent girls with conduct disorder.

Severe antisocial behavior in girls, best exemplified by conduct disorder (CD), is a serious clinical and public health problem. Treatment is difficult, particularly in girls with comorbid internalizing disorders. Identifying biological correlates may help to develop new treatments or diagnostic, prognostic, or treatment response biomarkers. Based on our earlier work and research from others occurring primarily in boys with severe antisocial behavior, it is possible that abnormalities in the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis circadian cortisol cycle may be associated with female CD. Additionally, research suggests that the presence of comorbid internalizing disorders may be related to differences in cortisol secretion, compared to subjects who only have CD. Our study aimed: 1) to compare the circadian cortisol cycle in 98 girls with CD, 15-16 years of age to 47 girls without any psychiatric disorder (ND) and 2) to compare the cycle in girls with CD and comorbid internalizing disorders (CD + INT) to those without such comorbidity (CD Only). Salivary cortisol was collected over 24 h during weekdays at scheduled times, with protocol adherence measures in place. Unstructured covariance pattern modeling, controlling for effects of age, social class, IQ, and awakening time was used to analyze cortisol data. CD was associated with overall lower cortisol secretion (p = 0.03), but this difference was due to a lower volume of cortisol secreted 30 min after awakening (area under the curve with respect to ground, p = 0.01). Circadian cortisol secretion was no different in the CD+INT group compared to the CD Only group (p = 0.52). Our findings need to be replicated using current consensus guidelines for the assessment of the CAR. We also suggest two new avenues of research in this field.

The Young Adolescent Project: A longitudinal study of the effects of maltreatment on adolescent development.

The Young Adolescent Project (YAP) is an ongoing longitudinal study investigating the effects of abuse and neglect on adolescent development. It is a multidisciplinary study guided by a developmental, ecological perspective, and designed to consider the physical, social, and psychological effects of childhood maltreatment through the transition from childhood to adolescence. Four waves of data collection have been completed, ranging from early (Mean age = 10.95) to late adolescence (Mean age = 18.24). Members of the maltreated group (n = 303) were selected from new cases that had been opened by the Department of Child and Family Services, whereas the comparison group (n = 151) were not involved with child welfare but lived in the same neighborhoods as the maltreated group. The study assessed a wide variety of domains including physical development (e.g., height, weight, body mass, pubertal development); physiological reactivity (e.g., cortisol); cognitive abilities; mental health (e.g., symptoms of depression, anxiety, trauma, and aggression); risk behavior (e.g., sexual activity, delinquency, or substance use); social development (e.g., self-esteem, competence, and social support); family environment; and exposure to community violence. Overall, our findings demonstrated the pervasive and persistent adverse effects of child maltreatment both within and across domains, but they also identified maltreated youth with positive functioning. Our hope is that this work will help move us toward identifying targets for intervention to cultivate resilience and positive adaptation after early maltreatment experiences.

The Moderating Role of Cortisol Reactivity on the Link Between Maltreatment and Body Mass Index Trajectory Across Adolescence.

PURPOSE: Child maltreatment increases risk for obesity, yet differential effects of maltreatment type remain unclear. Cortisol reactivity may help clarify these effects, given links among cortisol reactivity, maltreatment, and obesity. We examined these associations in boys and girls across adolescence. METHODS: We collected data from 454 adolescents (212 girls) across four waves (aged 8-13 years at Time 1), including 303 maltreated youth. We modeled body mass index (BMI) percentile trajectories arrayed by age separately for boys and girls and tested whether cortisol reactivity at Time 1 moderated the association between maltreatment type and BMI growth. RESULTS: In girls, cortisol reactivity moderated the association between maltreatment type and quadratic change in BMI. At low levels of cortisol, sexually abused girls had a steeper quadratic increase in BMI compared with comparison (-.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.09 to -.22) and physically abused (-.76, 95% CI -1.29, -.24) girls. At high levels of cortisol, sexually abused girls did not differ from comparison (.15, 95% CI -.40 to .70) or physically abused (.21, 95% CI -.38 to .80) girls in quadratic change in BMI. In boys, cortisol reactivity did not moderate the association between maltreatment type and BMI growth. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of lower cortisol reactivity and sexual abuse may put girls at risk for BMI increase during later adolescence. Given the negative consequences of high BMI, identifying and intervening with these girls could lead to better health and well-being among this group. Cortisol reactivity may not play the same role among boys.

The New Biobehavioral Developmental Science of Puberty.

This special section is the product of a small-group meeting of those who study puberty and its relevance. Our aim was to gather information and write manuscripts to inform scientists of advances and continuing obstacles, as well as to stimulate interdisciplinary research on puberty relevant across the lifespan. The themes of the nine position or review papers (and commentary), range from cell to society. We hope this introduction will entice you to read all the papers and consider how they apply or expand your next steps in research or help you synthesize the literature on puberty. We anticipate the papers can embellish your adolescent courses, and, for junior scientists, we hope the many intriguing possibilities for future research on puberty will be apparent.

Conceptualizing Puberty as a Window of Opportunity for Impacting Health and Well-Being Across the Life Span.

We promote the perspective that puberty, a separate biological process embedded in adolescence, is a "window of opportunity" for understanding and impacting health and development. First, we include a brief overview of pubertal change. Second, we propose a critical role for puberty in shaping life span health due to its connections with early life precursors, health issues and risks emerging during puberty, and health in young adulthood and beyond. Next, we discuss the importance of puberty measures in developmental research and suggest ways to make the science of puberty an important standalone research entity, as well as an essential component of studies conducted during adolescence. Finally, we discuss measurement issues, novel theoretical models of puberty, and the necessity of adopting an interdisciplinary perspective in research on puberty and in adolescence more broadly.

Interdisciplinary Work Is Essential for Research on Puberty: Complexity and Dynamism in Action.

Puberty is associated with changes in behavior and psychosocial well-being, and is important in lifelong health. We present five different facets regarding interdisciplinary research that are important to puberty. A short history of philosophical issues instrumental in promoting early interdisciplinary research is first presented. We discuss then what is hard and what is easy about interdisciplinary research, the purpose of which is to alert scientists to challenges and opportunities for interdisciplinary research on puberty. Readers then are introduced to advances and obstacles in interdisciplinary research on development. Recommendations for tailoring graduate education toward interdisciplinarity are introduced. Finally, issues related to publication, education of scientists, and policy makers are described. The report concludes with a discussion of funding and policy issues.

Longitudinal Relationship Between Mental Health Symptoms and Sleep Disturbances and Duration in Maltreated and Comparison Adolescents.

PURPOSE: To examine the longitudinal relationships between mental health symptoms and sleep for male and female maltreated and comparison adolescents. METHODS: Participants were from a longitudinal study of child maltreatment (maltreated n = 247; comparison n = 138). The current analyses used data from Time 3 (T3; average age 13.7 years) and Time 4 (T4; average age 18.2 years). Path models tested cross-lagged effects between mental health symptoms (depression and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder [PTSD]) and sleep (disturbances and duration) and main effects of maltreatment on Time 4 variables, stratified by sex. RESULTS: Reciprocal relationships between depressive and PTSD symptoms and sleep disturbances were found only for females. Specifically, depressive and PTSD symptoms at T3 predicted sleep disturbances at T4 and sleep disturbances at T3 also predicted depressive and PTSD symptoms at T4. Regarding sleep duration, PTSD symptoms at T3 predicted shorter sleep duration at T4 among females but not for males. There was no effect of maltreatment status on mental health symptoms or sleep disturbance, but maltreated adolescents reported longer sleep duration at T4 than comparison adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: The reciprocal nature of the relationship between mental health symptoms and sleep disturbances in females highlights the need to treat both mental health symptoms as well as sleep problems in female adolescents to improve mental and physical health. The absence of a negative effect of maltreatment on sleep may be due to the fact that the maltreated youth and comparison youth lived in the same low-income urban communities and were exposed to the same nocturnal environmental irritants.

Changes to sleep-wake behaviors are associated with trajectories of pubertal timing and tempo of secondary sex characteristics.

We examined relations between sleep-wake behaviors and pubertal development from age 8.5 through 15.5 years in a US-based sample of 488 boys (75% White) and 478 girls (78% White). Applying conditional nonlinear growth models to 7-waves of longitudinal data, we examined how sleep-wake behaviors are related to individual differences in the developmental timing and tempo of secondary sex characteristics. For girls, results supported the hypothesis that circadian changes in bedtimes, wake times, sleep duration, and eveningness preference were uniquely related to development of discrete aspects of secondary sex characteristics. For boys, the hypothesis was generally not supported. Different endocrine systems related to discrete secondary sex characteristics may be responsible for more relations between sleep and pubic hair development than for breast or genital development. Further research into associations between adrenarche and sleep during puberty may help researchers understand more about the origins and timing of adolescent sleep changes.

Longitudinal synergies between cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone and antisocial behavior in young adolescents.

The aims were to identify the correspondence between simultaneous, longitudinal changes in cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone and to test the hypothesis that cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone interact so as to influence antisocial behavior. Participants were 135 children and young adolescents assessed at 6-month intervals over 1 year. Upon enrollment girls were age 8, 10, or 12 years (N = 69, M = 10.06 years) and boys were age 9, 11, or 13 years (N = 66, M = 10.94 years). Assessments included Tanner staging by a nurse, cortisol reactivity (Trier Social Stress Test for Children), diurnal testosterone, and interviews and questionnaires. Growth models showed that cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone basal levels (intercept) and rate of change (slopes) were not related, suggesting different mechanisms of growth. Longitudinal regression analyses assessed cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone longitudinally. The interactions of cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone showed that when diurnal testosterone was low, boys with low cortisol reactivity were reported to have more behavior problems (i.e., oppositional defiant disorder symptoms and attention problems) than when testosterone was high. In addition, when diurnal testosterone was high, boys with high or moderate cortisol reactivity were significantly higher on total antisocial behavior, attention behavior problems, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms than when testosterone was low or moderate. The results were similar but less frequent for girls. These findings advance the science of young adolescence by showing the interaction between preexisting sensitivity to stressors and the normative testosterone changes of puberty and antisocial behavior.

Cortisol Stress Response Variability in Early Adolescence: Attachment, Affect and Sex.

Attachment, affect, and sex shape responsivity to psychosocial stress. Concurrent social contexts influence cortisol secretion, a stress hormone and biological marker of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Patterns of attachment, emotion status, and sex were hypothesized to relate to bifurcated, that is, accentuated and attenuated, cortisol reactivity. The theoretical framework for this study posits that multiple individual differences mediate a cortisol stress response. The effects of two psychosocial stress interventions, a modified Trier Social Stress Test for Teens and the Frustration Social Stressor for Adolescents were developed and investigated with early adolescents. Both of these protocols induced a significant stress reaction and evoked predicted bifurcation in cortisol responses; an increase or decrease from baseline to reactivity. In Study I, 120 predominantly middle-class, Euro-Canadian early adolescents with a mean age of 13.43 years were studied. The girls' attenuated cortisol reactivity to the public performance stressor related significantly to their self-reported lower maternal-attachment and higher trait-anger. In Study II, a community sample of 146 predominantly Euro-Canadian middle-class youth, with an average age of 14.5 years participated. Their self-reports of higher trait-anger and trait-anxiety, and lower parental attachment by both sexes related differentially to accentuated and attenuated cortisol reactivity to the frustration stressor. Thus, attachment, affect, sex, and the stressor contextual factors were associated with the adrenal-cortical responses of these adolescents through complex interactions. Further studies of individual differences in physiological responses to stress are called for in order to clarify the identities of concurrent protective and risk factors in the psychosocial stress and physiological stress responses of early adolescents.

Childhood Sexual Abuse and Early Timing of Puberty.

PURPOSE: The purpose was to examine whether the timing of puberty, indexed by breast development and pubic hair development, was earlier for sexually abused females compared with a matched comparison group of nonabused females, controlling for key alternative confounds. METHODS: A cohort of sexually abused females and matched comparisons was followed longitudinally at mean ages 11 through 20 years. Sexually abused participants (N = 84) were referred by protective services. Comparison participants (N = 89) were recruited to be comparable in terms of age, ethnicity, income level, family constellation, zip codes, and nonsexual trauma histories. Stage of puberty was indexed at each assessment by nurse and participant ratings of breast and pubic hair development using Tanner staging-the gold standard for assessing pubertal onset and development. Cumulative logit mixed models were used to estimate the association between sexual abuse status and the likelihood of transitioning from earlier to later Tanner stage categories controlling for covariates and potential confounds. RESULTS: Sexual abuse was associated with earlier pubertal onset: 8 months earlier for breasts (odds ratio: 3.06, 95% CI: 1.11-8.49) and 12 months earlier for pubic hair (odds ratio: 3.49, 95% CI: 1.34-9.12). Alternative explanations including ethnicity, obesity, and biological father absence did not eradicate these findings. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms an association between exposure to childhood sexual abuse and earlier pubertal onset. Results highlight the possibility that, due to this early onset, sexual abuse survivors may be at increased risk for psychosocial difficulties, menstrual and fertility problems, and even reproductive cancers due to prolonged exposure to sex hormones.

Morningness-Eveningness and Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls: Menarche as a Transition Point.

This study identified trajectories of morningness-eveningness (M-E) and physical activity when chronological (i.e., time since birth) versus gynecological (i.e., time since menarche) age is used to indicate maturation. Piecewise models were fit for girls (N = 262, ages 11-19) using chronological or gynecological age as the time metric. Girls stayed up later (i.e., eveningness) as they approach menarche. After menarche no change in M-E was observed. In contrast, no change in M-E was detected with chronological age. No change in physical activity was observed before menarche, and physical activity declined after menarche. With chronological age, physical activity declined as girls got older. Gynecological age may be more appropriate than chronological age as a metric for understanding changes in M-E and physical activity.

A study of cortisol reactivity and recovery among young adolescents: Heterogeneity and longitudinal stability and change.

The dominance of reactivity-based theories of the cortisol response and lack of attention to cortisol recovery makes it difficult to compile an integrated theory of the stress response. This report examined a reactivity and recovery model of the cortisol response using variable-centered and person-centered approaches. Age and sex differences and heterogeneity in the pattern of cortisol response were examined. Participants were 135 healthy young adolescents participating in a three-wave longitudinal study of puberty and psychological development. At each wave, five saliva-cortisol samples were collected prior to and following a modified Trier Social Stressor Test for Children. Linear, quadratic, and piece-wise models of latent growth curve analyses and latent class analyses were conducted. Age differences in cortisol reactivity and recovery were found at wave 1 and sex differences in cortisol reactivity emerged at wave 3. Meaningful heterogeneity in the pattern of cortisol response was found cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The implications of heterogeneity in the cortisol response during early adolescence for developmental science are discussed.

Cortisol profiles: A test for adaptive calibration of the stress response system in maltreated and nonmaltreated youth.

Throughout the life span, exposure to chronic stress such as child maltreatment is thought to contribute to future dysfunction of the stress response system (SRS) through the process of adaptive calibration. Dysfunction of the SRS is associated with numerous health and behavior problems, so it is important to understand under what conditions and what time frame adaptive calibration occurs. The present study tested for adaptive calibration of the SRS in a sample of maltreated (n = 303) and nonmaltreated (n = 151) youth during the important developmental period of adolescence. Data were used from Waves 2, 3, and 4 of a larger study of the consequences of maltreatment on health and well-being. At each time point, participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test for Children and provided a baseline and four poststressor saliva samples to measure cortisol reactivity. Adaptive calibration was tested by performing a latent profile analysis using the five samples of salivary cortisol provided at each time point, and testing whether maltreatment status predicted the likelihood of profile membership at Time 2, Time 3, and Time 4. Three cortisol profiles emerged from the data at each time point (blunted, moderate, and elevated), and results indicated that maltreated youth were more likely than nonmaltreated youth to present with the blunted cortisol profile compared to the moderate and elevated profiles at Time 2 and Time 3, even after controlling for recent exposure to violence and trauma. At Time 4, there was no longer a difference in profile membership between maltreated and nonmaltreated youth, suggesting adaptive calibration may be a lengthy process requiring a period of years to become evident. Overall, the findings provide support for adaptive calibration and offer insight into the conditions under which adaptive calibration occurs.

Variability in diurnal testosterone, exposure to violence, and antisocial behavior in young adolescents.

The purpose of this report is to provide evidence of an association between within-person variability in diurnal testosterone over 1 year, lifetime exposure to violence, and the manifestation of antisocial behavior in 135 pubertal-aged adolescents across 1 year. Adolescents' sex and lifetime history of violence exposure moderated the association between within-person variability in diurnal testosterone and antisocial behavior. Furthermore, sex-stratified analyses revealed that lifetime history of exposure to violence moderated the association between within-person variability in diurnal testosterone and antisocial behavior in females only. This report is unique in that it illuminates sex differences in within-person associations among exposure to violence, individual variability in diurnal testosterone, and antisocial behavior.

Development and Lability in the Parent-Child Relationship During Adolescence: Associations With Pubertal Timing and Tempo.

Adolescents' and parents' reactions to pubertal development are hypothesized to contribute to changes in family dynamics. Using 7-year longitudinal data from the NICHD-SECCYD (488 boys, 475 girls) we examined relations between pubertal development (timing, tempo) and trajectories (developmental change and year-to-year lability) of parent-child conflict and closeness from age 8.5 to 15.5 years. Changes were mostly characterized by year-to-year fluctuations - lability. Parent-child conflict increased and closeness decreased some with age. Pubertal timing and tempo were more consistently associated with lability in parent-child relationships than with long-term trends, although faster tempo was associated with steeper decreases in parent-child closeness. Findings provide a platform for examining how puberty contributes to both long-term and transient changes in adolescents' relationships and adjustment.