Causality in the Theory of Planned Behavior.

The theory of planned behavior proposes that behavior is predicted by behavioral intention which is, in turn, predicted by three base components: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms regarding the behavior, and perceived control over the behavior. Implied within this theory is that each of the three base components influence intentions, solely in that direction. However, despite being one of the most widely used theories in many areas of psychology and health sciences, few studies have tested this basic premise. Might causal influence also flow in a reverse-causal direction from intentions back to the base components? This causal sequence was tested and supported by a correlational study, a lab-based experiment, and a quasi-experimental field study. This demonstration of reverse-causal relations from intentions to the base components suggests that the theory of planned behavior should be modified to include reciprocal causal relations.

Pro-Environmental Values Matter in Competitive but Not Cooperative Commons Dilemmas.

The choice to conserve or be greedy in a commons dilemma may be influenced by the behavior of others and by pro-environmental values. Participants completed a measure of pro-environmental values one week before taking part in an Internet-based commons dilemma microworld consisting of a shared fishery with three computer-controlled virtual fishers whom participants believed to be real people. The three virtual fishers either behaved greedily (taking an unsustainable number of fish each season) or sustainably. In the sustainable scenario, virtual fishers left abundant numbers of fish for the participant and, thus, pro-environmental values were not related to harvesting decisions. However, in the greedy scenario, participants' pro-environmental values significantly predicted sustainable behavior, demonstrating that the influence of others' greediness may be overridden by pro-environmental values.

Please turn off the lights: the effectiveness of visual prompts.

Two early studies showed that visual prompts can be effectively used to encourage people to turn off the lights in unoccupied classrooms, but they were methodologically limited. The current study used an ABAB-B design with an 11-week follow-up to investigate whether two different visual prompts (large and small signs) could be employed to increase "lights off" behaviour in 17 unoccupied washrooms. The odds were eight times higher that lights would be turned off in washrooms with signs than washrooms without, and large signs trended toward being more effective than small signs. Signs in washrooms with windows appeared to be the most effective, but this finding merits further research. Behaviour change persisted throughout the follow-up period, but reactance by a single washroom user resulted in some signs being removed. Compared to previous research, the current study used an improved methodology with a larger number of study sites. This study demonstrated that a simple, well-designed sign can effectively encourage energy conservation.

Both parental psychopathology and prenatal maternal alcohol dependency can predict the behavioral phenotype in children.

OBJECTIVE: To identify whether a child's behavior phenotype can be predicted by parental psychopathology and/or prenatal maternal alcohol dependency by using the Child Behavior List (CBCL) as a screening tool. METHODS: A retrospective cohort of four non-exclusive groups of children (aged 8-15 years) was studied: (i) children exposed to alcohol in utero (n = 25); (ii) children not exposed to alcohol in utero (n = 46); (iii) children exposed to parental psychopathology (n = 37); (iv) children not exposed to parental psychopathology (n = 34). To distinguish between the effects of alcohol and parental psychopathology, the children were further subdivided into groups with alcohol exposure in utero and parental psychopathology (n = 23), and psychopathology without alchohol exposure (n = 14). Each child was assessed with the CBCL. Subscale scores and selected subscale items were compared between the groups using t-tests and regression analysis. RESULTS: Children exposed to alcohol in utero scored significantly lower than unexposed children on school competency (p = 0.015). They were more likely to attend special classes (p = 0.048), repeat a grade (p = 0.011), and display more disobedience (p = 0.039) and vandalism (p = 0.033). For special classes and disobedience at school, gender proved to be a significant predictor, while maternal alcohol dependency was a significant predictor of vandalism and repeated grades. Children with parental psychopathology differed from children without parental psychopathology in the anxious/depressed (p = 0.04), social problems (p = 0.004), and attention problems (p = 0.04) subscales. The subscale items that were significantly different between the groups were nervousness (p = 0.002), self-consciousness (p = 0.019), feelings of worthlessness (p = 0.041), loneliness (p = 0.005), and difficulty with concentration (p = 0.02). Parental psychopathology was a significant predictor of all five items. Age and gender, however, were significant predictors only of difficulty with concentration. No significant differences were found when the groups with alcohol exposure in utero and parental psychopathology, and psychopathology without alcohol exposure were compared. In summary, parental psychopathology was a significant predictor of a child's internalizing behavior, as well as social problems, whereas alcohol exposure was more predictive of externalizing behaviour. CONCLUSION: Parental psychopathology and prenatal exposure to maternal alcohol can contribute to the child's behavioral phenotype as measured by the CBCL. Therefore, the CBCL can be used to screen for such behaviors.

Major malformations with valproic acid.

QUESTION: Increasing numbers of pregnant patients are treated with valproic acid, not just for epilepsy, but also for psychiatric conditions. Are there teratogenic risks other than the risk of spina bifida? ANSWER: It has now become evident that valproic acid might cause more than just neural tube defects (NTDs). In a systematic review of all cohort studies intended to answer this question, higher rates of major malformations (and not just NTDs) were found in most studies. The calculated relative risk was 2.59 when compared with other antiepileptic drugs and was 3.77 when compared with risk in the general population. There is compelling evidence that the risk is dose dependent. The risks appear to begin increasing at doses of 600 mg/d and to become more prominent at doses above 1000 mg/d.