ABSTRACT
ADHD is a highly prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder. The first-line therapeutic for ADHD, methylphenidate, can cause serious side effects including weight loss, insomnia, and hypertension. Therefore, the development of non-stimulant-based therapeutics has been prioritized. However, many of these also cause other effects, most notably somnolence. Here, we have used a uniquely powerful genetic model and unbiased drug screen to identify novel ADHD non-stimulant therapeutics. We first found that adgrl3.1 null (adgrl3.1-/-) zebrafish larvae showed a robust hyperactive phenotype. Although the hyperactivity was rescued by three ADHD non-stimulant therapeutics, all interfered significantly with sleep. Second, we used wild-type zebrafish larvae to characterize a simple behavioral phenotype generated by atomoxetine and screened the 1200 compound Prestwick Chemical Library® for a matching behavioral profile resulting in 67 hits. These hits were re-assayed in the adgrl3.1-/-. Using the previously identified non-stimulants as a positive control, we identified four compounds that matched the effect of atomoxetine: aceclofenac, amlodipine, doxazosin, and moxonidine. We additionally demonstrated cognitive effects of moxonidine in mice using a T-maze spontaneous alternation task. Moxonidine, has high affinity for imidazoline 1 receptors. We, therefore, assayed a pure imidazoline 1 agonist, LNP599, which generated an effect closely matching other non-stimulant ADHD therapeutics suggesting a role for this receptor system in ADHD. In summary, we introduce a genetic model of ADHD in zebrafish and identify five putative therapeutics. The findings offer a novel tool for understanding the neural circuits of ADHD, suggest a novel mechanism for its etiology, and identify novel therapeutics.
Subject(s)
Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity , Central Nervous System Stimulants , Imidazolines , Methylphenidate , Animals , Mice , Atomoxetine Hydrochloride/pharmacology , Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/drug therapy , Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/genetics , Zebrafish , Methylphenidate/pharmacology , Methylphenidate/therapeutic use , Phenotype , Imidazolines/therapeutic use , Central Nervous System Stimulants/adverse effectsABSTRACT
In the present study, we characterize a novel zebrafish mutant of solute carrier 18A2 (slc18a2), also known as vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (vmat2), that exhibits a behavioural phenotype partially consistent with human Parkinson´s disease. At six days-post-fertilization, behaviour was analysed and demonstrated that vmat2 homozygous mutant larvae, relative to wild types, show changes in motility in a photomotor assay, altered sleep parameters, and reduced dopamine cell number. Following an abrupt lights-off stimulus mutant larvae initiate larger movements but subsequently inhibit them to a lesser extent in comparison to wild-type larvae. Conversely, during a lights-on period, the mutant larvae are hypomotile. Thigmotaxis, a preference to avoid the centre of a behavioural arena, was increased in homozygotes over heterozygotes and wild types, as was daytime sleep ratio. Furthermore, incubating mutant larvae in pramipexole or L-Dopa partially rescued the motor phenotypes, as did injecting glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) into their brains. This novel vmat2 model represents a tool for high throughput pharmaceutical screens for novel therapeutics, in particular those that increase monoamine transport, and for studies of the function of monoamine transporters.
