The Relationship Between the Personality Inventory for the DSM-5 (PID-5) and the Psychotic Disorder in a Clinical Sample.

Recent studies have successfully investigated the validity of the DSM-5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders. In a final sample of 174 psychiatric patients, the present study examined the relationship between the Personality Inventory for the DSM-5 (PID-5) and syndromal psychosis. Results showed that patients diagnosed with versus without a psychotic disorder significantly differed on all PID-5 domains except Antagonism. Discriminant function analysis indicated that lower Detachment, lower Negative Affect, lower Disinhibition, and higher Psychoticism best discriminated patients with a psychotic disorder from patients with other psychiatric conditions. Subsequent stepwise discriminant analysis on all facet scales of the contributing PID-5 domains revealed that higher Unusual Beliefs, lower Depressivity, and lower Distractibility contributed the most to this differentiation. PID-5 Psychoticism scores showed moderate correlations with current psychotic symptoms and were not influenced by dose of antipsychotic medication. Our results support the ability of the PID-5 to discriminate between patients with and without psychotic disorder.

Genetic Evaluation of Schizophrenia Using the Illumina HumanExome Chip.

INTRODUCTION: Schizophrenia is a genetically heterogeneous disorder that is associated with several common and rare genetic variants. As technology involved, cost advantages of chip based genotyping was combined with information about rare variants, resulting in the Infinium HumanExome Beadchip. Using this chip, a sample of 493 patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 484 healthy controls was genotyped. RESULTS: From the initial 242901 SNVs, 88306 had at least one minor allele and passed quality control. No variant reached genomewide-significant results (p<10(-8)). The SNP with the lowest p-value was rs1230345 in WISP3 (p = 3.05*10(-6)), followed by rs9311525 in CACNA2D3 (p = 1.03*10(-5)) and rs1558557 (p = 3.85*10(-05)) on chromosome 7. At the gene level, 3 genes were of interest: WISP3, on chromosome 6q21, a signally protein from the extracellular matrix. A second candidate gene is CACNA2D3, a regulator of the intracerebral calcium pathway. A third gene is TNFSF10, associated with p53 mediated apoptosis.

Knowledge of Psychiatric Nurses About the Potentially Lethal Side-Effects of Clozapine.

Clozapine is an antipsychotic with superior efficacy in treatment refractory patients, and has unique anti-suicidal properties and a low propensity to cause extrapyramidal side-effects. Despite these advantages, clozapine utilization is low. This can in part be explained by a number of potentially lethal side effects of clozapine. Next to psychiatrists nurses play a crucial role in the long-term management of patients with schizophrenia. It is therefore important that nurses know, inform and monitor patients about the specific side-effects of clozapine. A recent study of psychiatrists published in 2011 has shown that there was a gap in the knowledge about side-effects of clozapine. The knowledge about side-effects of clozapine in nurses has never been studied. This cross-sectional study evaluated the knowledge base regarding the safety of clozapine, and its potential mediators, of psychiatric nurses in 3 psychiatric hospitals in Belgium with a specifically developed questionnaire based on the literature and expert opinion (3 clozapine experts). A total of 85 nurses completed the questionnaire. The mean total score was 6.1 of a potential maximum score of 18. Only 3 of the 18 multiple choice knowledge questions were answered correctly by more than 50% of nurses. Only 24.9% of participants passed the test (>50% correct answers). Nurses working on psychosis units were more likely to pass the test (xx.y% vs yy.z%, p=0.0124). There was a trend that nurses with a lower nursing diploma were more likely to fail the test (p=0.0561). Our study clearly identifies a large gap in the basic knowledge of psychiatric nurses about clozapine and its side-effects. Knowledge could be increased by more emphasis on the topic in nurse's training curricula as well as targeted onsite training. Only 23.5% of participants indicate that there was sufficient information in their basic nursing training.

Attitudes of Psychiatric Nurses about the Request for Euthanasia on the Basis of Unbearable Mental Suffering(UMS).

INTRODUCTION: When psychiatric patients express a wish for euthanasia, this should first and foremost be interpreted as a cry for help. Due to their close day-to-day relationship, psychiatric nurses may play an important and central role in responding to such requests. However, little is known about nurses' attitudes towards euthanasia motivated by unbearable mental suffering. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to provide insight into the attitudes and actions taken by psychiatric nurses when confronted with a patient's euthanasia request based on unbearable mental suffering (UMS). METHOD: A questionnaire was sent to 11 psychiatric hospitals in the Flemish part of Belgium. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 70% (N = 627). Psychiatric nurses were frequently confronted with a request for euthanasia, either directly (N = 329, 53%) or through a colleague (N = 427, 69%). A majority (N = 536, 84%) did not object to euthanasia in a psychiatrically ill population with UMS. Confounding factors were the psychiatric diagnosis and the type of ward where the nurses were working. Most participants acknowledged a lack of knowledge and skills to adequately address the euthanasia request (N = 434, 71%). Nearly unanimously (N = 618, 99%), study participants indicated that dealing with euthanasia requests and other end-of-life issues should be part of the formal training of nurses. CONCLUSION: The results highlight the need for ethically sound and comprehensive provision of care. Psychiatric nurses play an important role in dealing with the complex issue of requests for euthanasia. There is also a need for education, training and clear guidelines on the level of health care organizations.

End-of-life (care) perspectives and expectations of patients with schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia is a disabling and life-shortening psychiatric disorder due to disease, medication, and lifestyle-related factors. It is therefore not unreasonable to assume that existential themes are important for these patients. METHODS: Transcripts of 20 patients were coded and analyzed thematically, using a modified grounded theory approach in the exploration of perspectives and expectations of end-of-life (care). RESULTS: No fear of death, skilled companionship and preserving quality of life were major themes in the interviews. CONCLUSION: This study showed that patients, despite emotional flattening and cognitive deficits, find the possibility to discuss end-of-life topics reassuring and some even therapeutic.

Diabetes, physical activity participation and exercise capacity in patients with schizophrenia.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine if in schizophrenia patients the presence of diabetes is associated with lower physical activity participation and lower exercise capacity compared to patients with pre-diabetes and to patients without (pre-) diabetes. METHODS: Schizophrenia patients without (pre-)diabetes (n = 86) were compared with pre-diabetic (n = 10) and diabetic patients (n = 10). Patients were assessed on physical activity participation using the Baecke physical activity questionnaire and on exercise capacity using a 6-min walk test (6MWT). RESULTS: The three groups were similar in age, sex, mean antipsychotic medication dose, negative and depressive symptoms and smoking behavior. Distance achieved on the 6MWT, however, was approximately 15% shorter (P < 0.05) in patients withdiabetes than in patients without (pre-)diabetes (500.3 ± 76.9 m vs 590.7 ± 101.8 m). Patients with diabetes were also significantly less physically active (P < 0.05). No differences between diabetic and pre-diabetic patients were found. Pre-diabetic patients had a higher body mass index (BMI) than non-diabetic patients (30.0 ± 7.3 vs 24.3 ± 4.3, P < 0.05). An interaction effect with BMI for differences in Baecke (F = 29.9, P < 0.001) and 6MWT (F = 13.0, P < 0.001) scores was seen between diabetic and non-diabetic patients on univariate ANCOVA. CONCLUSION: The additive burden of diabetes might place patients with schizophrenia at an even greater risk for functional limitations in daily life.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and metabolic abnormalities in schizophrenia and related disorders--a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Individuals with schizophrenia have high levels of medical comorbidity and cardiovascular risk factors. The presence of 3 or more specific factors is indicative of metabolic syndrome, which is a significant influence upon future morbidity and mortality. We aimed to clarify the prevalence and predictors of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in adults with schizophrenia and related disorders, accounting for subgroup differences. A PRISMA systematic search, appraisal, and meta-analysis were conducted of 126 analyses in 77 publications (n = 25,692). The overall rate of MetS was 32.5% (95% CI = 30.1%-35.0%), and there were only minor differences according to the different definitions of MetS, treatment setting (inpatient vs outpatient), by country of origin and no appreciable difference between males and females. Older age had a modest influence on the rate of MetS (adjusted R(2) = .20; P < .0001), but the strongest influence was of illness duration (adjusted R(2) = .35; P < .0001). At a study level, waist size was most useful in predicting high rate of MetS with a sensitivity of 79.4% and a specificity of 78.8%. Sensitivity and specificity of high blood pressure, high triglycerides, high glucose and low high-density lipoprotein, and age (>38 y) are shown in supplementary appendix 2 online. Regarding prescribed antipsychotic medication, highest rates were seen in those prescribed clozapine (51.9%) and lowest rates of MetS in those who were unmedicated (20.2%). Present findings strongly support the notion that patients with schizophrenia should be considered a high-risk group. Patients with schizophrenia should receive regular monitoring and adequate treatment of cardio-metabolic risk factors.

Relationships between physical fitness, physical activity, smoking and metabolic and mental health parameters in people with schizophrenia.

Low physical fitness has been recognised as a prominent behavioural risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and metabolic syndrome (MetS), and as an independent risk factor for all-cause mortality. No studies have systematically assessed physical fitness compared with a matched health control group in patients with schizophrenia. Eighty patients with schizophrenia and 40 age-, gender- and body mass index (BMI)-matched healthy volunteers were included. All participants performed an Eurofit test battery and filled out the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Patients additionally had a fasting metabolic laboratory screening and were assessed for psychiatric symptoms. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrated significant differences from controls in whole body balance, explosive leg muscle strength, abdominal muscular endurance, and running speed. Inactive patients scored worse on most Eurofit items than patients walking for at least 30min per day. Low physical fitness was associated with illness duration, smoking, the presence of MetS and more severe negative, depressive and cognitive symptoms. Less physically active patients who smoke and suffer from high levels of negative, depressive and/or cognitive symptoms might benefit from specific rehabilitation interventions aimed at increasing physical fitness.

Body weight and metabolic adverse effects of asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone and paliperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The introduction of second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) over the past 2 decades generated considerable optimism that better antipsychotic treatments for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder were possible. SGAs offer several tolerability benefits over first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), particularly with respect to extrapyramidal symptoms. However, SGAs can induce serious metabolic dysregulations, especially in drug-naive, first-episode, and child and adolescent populations, with olanzapine and clozapine having the highest propensity to cause these abnormalities. In this context, newer SGAs were developed to further improve the adverse effect burden of available agents. However, until now, the metabolic risk profile of the newly approved SGAs - asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone and paliperidone (paliperidone extended release and paliperidone palmitate) - has not been compared. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis was to assess the effects of asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone and paliperidone on body weight and other metabolic parameters (cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose), as this information is relevant to guide clinical decision making. METHOD: A systematic literature search (1966-March 2012), using the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and MEDLINE, CINAHL and EMBASE databases, was conducted for randomized, placebo-controlled and head-to-head clinical trials of asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone and paliperidone. Published and unpublished data on changes in body weight and glucose and lipid metabolism parameters were extracted. For placebo-controlled, short-term (≤12 weeks) and longer-term (>12 weeks) trials with available data on ≥7% weight increase compared with pre-treatment weight, or mean weight change with standard deviation, a formal meta-analysis was performed, estimating the pooled effect size (represented as relative risk [RR], numbers-needed-to-harm [NNH] and weighted mean difference [WMD]). An exploratory meta-analysis was also performed for the other metabolic variables (cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose). Data from active- and placebo-controlled studies were used for a pooled comparison of simple mean changes in weight, cholesterol, triglyceride and glucose levels. RESULTS: Fifty-six trials (n = 21 691) in schizophrenia (N = 49, n = 19 299) or bipolar disorder (N = 7, n = 2392) were identified (asenapine: N = 9, iloperidone: N = 11, lurasidone: N = 8, paliperidone: N = 28). Most of the trials (64.3%) were of ≤12 weeks' duration. In the short-term trials, compared with placebo, a ≥7% weight increase was statistically significantly (p < 0.05) most prevalent for asenapine (5 trials, n = 1360, RR = 4.09, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.25, 7.43, NNH = 17), followed by iloperidone (4 trials, n = 1931, RR = 3.13, 95% CI 2.08, 4.70, NNH = 11) and paliperidone (12 trials, n = 4087, RR = 2.17, 95% CI 1.64, 2.86, NNH = 20). The effect of lurasidone on body weight (6 trials, n = 1793, RR = 1.42, 95% CI 0.87, 2.29) was not statistically significant. Short-term weight gain was statistically significantly (p < 0.001) greater than placebo with iloperidone (1 trial, n = 300, +2.50 kg, 95% CI 1.92, 3.08), paliperidone (15 trials, n = 3552, +1.24 kg, 95% CI 0.91, 1.57), asenapine (3 trials, n = 751, +1.16 kg, 95% CI 0.83, 1.49), as well as with lurasidone (5 trials, n = 999, +0.49 kg, 95% CI 0.17, 0.81, p < 0.01). Sufficient meta-analysable, longer-term, weight change data were only available for asenapine and paliperidone, showing statistically significantly (p < 0.001) greater weight gain versus placebo for both drugs (asenapine, 3 trials, n = 311, +1.30 kg, 95% CI 0.62, 1.98; paliperidone, 6 trials, n = 1174, +0.50 kg, 95% CI 0.22, 0.78). Although statistically significant, in general, no clinically meaningful differences were observed between the four newly approved SGAs and placebo regarding the mean change from baseline to endpoint in cholesterol levels in short-term trials, with the exception of iloperidone for total cholesterol (1 trial, n = 300, +11.60 mg/dL, 95% CI 4.98, 18.22, p ≤ 0.001), high-density cholesterol (1 trial, n = 300, +3.6 mg/dL, 95% CI 1.58, 5.62, p < 0.001) and low-density cholesterol (1 trial, n = 300, +10.30 mg/dL, 95% CI 4.94, 15.66, p < 0.001) and with the exception of lurasidone for high-density cholesterol (5 trials, n = 1004, +1.50 mg/dL, 95% CI 0.56, 2.44, p < 0.01). Asenapine increased total cholesterol statistically significantly (p < 0.05) during longer-term treatment (1 trial, n = 194, +6.53 mg/dL, 95% CI 1.17, 11.89). Regarding triglycerides, only short-term (3 trials, n = 1152, +1.78 mg/dL, 95% CI 0.40, 3.17, p < 0.01) and longer-term treatment with paliperidone (4 trials, n = 791, -0.20 mg/dL, 95% CI -0.40, -0.01, p < 0.05) had a statistically, but not clinically, significant effect. Statistically significant changes in glucose levels were noticed during short-term treatment with asenapine (2 trials, n = 379, -3.95 mg/dL, 95% CI -7.37, -0.53, p < 0.05) and iloperidone (1 trial, n = 300, +6.90 mg/dL, 95% CI 2.48, 11.32, p < 0.01), and during long-term treatment with paliperidone (6 trials, n = 1022, +3.39 mg/dL, 95% CI 0.42, 6.36, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: While preliminary data suggest the lowest weight gain potential with lurasidone and potentially relevant short-term metabolic effects for asenapine and iloperidone, data are still too sparse to comprehensively evaluate the metabolic safety of the newly approved SGAs. Therefore, there is a clear need for further controlled studies to evaluate whether these agents are less problematic regarding treatment-emergent weight gain and metabolic disturbances than other currently available antipsychotics.

Atomic force microscopy under controlled conditions reveals structure of C-terminal region of α-synuclein in amyloid fibrils.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is widely used to measure morphological and mechanical properties of biological materials at the nanoscale. AFM is able to visualize and measure these properties in different environmental conditions. However, these conditions can influence the results considerably, rendering their interpretation a matter of some subtlety. We demonstrate this by imaging ~10 nm diameter α-synuclein amyloid fibrils, focusing specifically on the structure of the C-terminal part of the protein monomers incorporated into fibrils. Despite these influences leading to variations in fibril heights, we have shown that by maintaining careful control of AFM settings we can quantitatively compare the morphological parameters of fibrils imaged in air or in buffer conditions. From this comparison we were able to deduce the semiflexible character of this C-terminal region. Fibril height differences measured in air and liquid indicate that the C-terminal region collapses onto the fibril core upon drying. The fibril heights decrease upon increasing ion concentration in solution, suggesting that the C-terminal tails collapse into more compact structures as a result of charge screening. Finally, PeakForce QNM measurements show an apparent heterogeneity of C-terminal packing along the fibril length.

Spatially resolved frequency-dependent elasticity measured with pulsed force microscopy and nanoindentation.

Recently several atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based surface property mapping techniques like pulsed force microscopy (PFM), harmonic force microscopy or Peakforce QNM® have been introduced to measure the nano- and micro-mechanical properties of materials. These modes all work at different operating frequencies. However, complex materials are known to display viscoelastic behavior, a combination of solid and fluid-like responses, depending on the frequency at which the sample is probed. In this report, we show that the frequency-dependent mechanical behavior of complex materials, such as polymer blends that are frequently used as calibration samples, is clearly measurable with AFM. Although this frequency-dependent mechanical behavior is an established observation, we demonstrate that the new high frequency mapping techniques enable AFM-based rheology with nanoscale spatial resolution over a much broader frequency range compared to previous AFM-based studies. We further highlight that it is essential to account for the frequency-dependent variation in mechanical properties when using these thin polymer samples as calibration materials for elasticity measurements by high-frequency surface property mapping techniques. These results have significant implications for the accurate interpretation of the nanomechanical properties of polymers or complex biological samples. The calibration sample is composed of a blend of soft and hard polymers, consisting of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) islands in a polystyrene (PS) surrounding, with a stiffness of 0.2 GPa and 2 GPa respectively. The spring constant of the AFM cantilever was selected to match the stiffness of LDPE. From 260 Hz to 1100 Hz the sample was imaged with the PFM method. At low frequencies (0.5-35 Hz), single-point nanoindentation was performed. In addition to the material's stiffness, the relative heights of the LDPE islands (with respect to the PS) were determined as a function of the frequency. At the lower operation frequencies for PFM, the islands exhibited lower heights than when measured with tapping mode at 120 kHz. Both spring constants and heights at the different frequencies clearly show a frequency-dependent behavior.

La capacidad de marcha está asociada a la calidad de vida (relacionada con la salud) y nivel de actividad física en pacientes con esquizofrenia: estudio preliminar / Walking capacity is associated with health related quality of life and physical activity level in patients with schizophrenia: a preliminary report

Objetivos. Examinar la capacidad de marcha (caminar) en pacientes con esquizofrenia y la relación con calidad de vida y nivel de actividad física. Métodos. La capacidad de ejercicio funcional fue medida con el test de los 6 minutos caminando (6 Minute Walk Test (6MWT)). Para evaluar la calidad de vida y los niveles de actividad física, usamos respectivamente el cuestionario SF 36 y el cuestionario Baecke de Actividad Física habitual. Resultados. La capacidad de marcha está fuertemente relacionada con el índice de masa corporal (IMC) y la calidad de vida. La actividad física está positivamente relacionada con la capacidad de caminar. Conclusión. Los resultados confirman que la capacidad de marcha podría ser un buen indicador de la calidad de vida y nivel de actividad física en pacientes con esquizofrenia (AU)

Objectives. To examine walking capacity in patients with schizophrenia and the relation with quality of life and physical activity level. Methods. Functional exercise capacity was measured with the 6 Minute Walk Test (6MWT). To assess quality of life and physical activity levels, we used respectively the SF-36 Questionnaire and the Baecke Physical Activity Questionnaire. Results. Walking capacity was strongly related to BMI and quality of life. Physical Activity (PA) was positively related to walking capacity .Conclusion: Present findings confirm that walking capacity could be a good indicator of quality of life and PA level in patients with schizophrenia (AU)

Walking capacity is associated with health related quality of life and physical activity level in patients with schizophrenia: a preliminary report.

OBJECTIVES: To examine walking capacity in patients with schizophrenia and the relation with quality of life and physical activity level. METHODS: Functional exercise capacity was measured with the 6 Minute Walk Test (6MWT). To asses quality of life and physical activity levels, we used respectively the SF-36 Questionnaire and the Baecke Physical Activity Questionnaire. RESULTS: Walking capacity was strongly related to BMI and quality of life. Physical Activity (PA) was positively related to walking capacity. CONCLUSION: Present findings confirm that walking capacity could be a good indicator of quality of life and PA level in patients with schizophrenia.

Quality assessment of physical activity recommendations within clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of cardio-metabolic risk factors in people with schizophrenia.

The aim of this review was to assess the quality of physical activity recommendations within clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of the cardio-metabolic risk factors in schizophrenia. Several databases were searched from their inception through July 2010. The Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation instrument was used for the quality assessment. Twelve recommendations met all the in- and exclusion criteria. The overall agreement of the quality assessment using the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.90. Comparison identified considerable variation in the quality of the content. Based on quality assurance standards, only one of 12 guidelines was recommended. Differences on in-depth analysis suggest a lack of consistency in relation to information about the potential role of physical activity in reducing cardiometabolic risks in schizophrenia. High quality recommendations are highly needed along with specific practical advice for persons with schizophrenia, family members and health care professionals.

Nanomechanical properties of α-synuclein amyloid fibrils: a comparative study by nanoindentation, harmonic force microscopy, and Peakforce QNM.

We report on the use of three different atomic force spectroscopy modalities to determine the nanomechanical properties of amyloid fibrils of the human α-synuclein protein. α-Synuclein forms fibrillar nanostructures of approximately 10 nm diameter and lengths ranging from 100 nm to several microns, which have been associated with Parkinson's disease. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used to image the morphology of these protein fibrils deposited on a flat surface. For nanomechanical measurements, we used single-point nanoindentation, in which the AFM tip as the indenter is moved vertically to the fibril surface and back while the force is being recorded. We also used two recently developed AFM surface property mapping techniques: Harmonic force microscopy (HarmoniX) and Peakforce QNM. These modalities allow extraction of mechanical parameters of the surface with a lateral resolution and speed comparable to tapping-mode AFM imaging. Based on this phenomenological study, the elastic moduli of the α-synuclein fibrils determined using these three different modalities are within the range 1.3-2.1 GPa. We discuss the relative merits of these three methods for the determination of the elastic properties of protein fibrils, particularly considering the differences and difficulties of each method.

Lack of physical activity during leisure time contributes to an impaired health related quality of life in patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to identify if lack of physical activity participation and an impaired functional exercise capacity compared with healthy controls contributed to an impaired health related quality of life (HRQL). We also evaluated whether the presence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) could explain the variability in HRQL in patients. METHOD: Patients with DSM-IV schizophrenia (n=60) and age- and gender-matched healthy controls (n=40) completed the SF-36 quality of life scale and the Baecke Physical Activity Questionnaire and performed a 6 minute walk test (6MWT). Patients also received a fasting metabolic laboratory screening. Linear multiple regression analysis was used to assess the associations between demographical and clinical variables and HRQL outcomes. RESULTS: Physical and mental HRQL and the Baecke and 6MWT-scores were significantly lower in patients with schizophrenia compared with matched healthy controls. When in schizophrenia patients all individual HRQL-predictors were included in a regression model, only BMI and lack of PA during leisure time remained significant predictors for physical HRQL while for mental HRQL no significant predictor remained. The impaired functional exercise capacity and the presence of MetS did not additionally explain the variance in HRQL. CONCLUSIONS: Physical HRQL in patients with schizophrenia is not only related to increased BMI but also to lack of leisure time physical activity. A reduced physical HRQL in patients with MetS appears to be related to their greater BMI, rather than to MetS per se. Present findings provide further support for routinely incorporating physical activity within rehabilitation programs and clinical assessments.

Prevalence and severity of antipsychotic related constipation in patients with schizophrenia: a retrospective descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: Antipsychotic are the cornerstone in the treatment of schizophrenia. They also have a number of side-effects. Constipation is thought to be common, and a potential serious side-effect, which has received little attention in recent literature. METHOD: We performed a retrospective study in consecutively admitted patients, between 2007 and 2009 and treated with antipsychotic medication, linking different electronic patient data to evaluate the prevalence and severity of constipation in patients with schizophrenia under routine treatment conditions. RESULTS: Over a period of 22 months 36.3% of patients (99) received at least once a pharmacological treatment for constipation. On average medication for constipation was prescribed for 273 days. Severe cases (N = 50), non-responsive to initial treatment, got a plain x-ray of the abdomen. In 68.4% fecal impaction was found. CONCLUSION: A high prevalence of constipation, often severe and needing medical interventions, was confirmed during the study period. Early detection, monitoring over treatment and early intervention of constipation could prevent serious consequences such as ileus.

Reliability, minimal detectable changes, practice effects and correlates of the 6-min walk test in patients with schizophrenia.

We examined the reproducibility of the 6-min walk test (6 MWT) in patients with schizophrenia. Secondary aims were to assess minimal detectable changes and practice effects of the 6 MWT and the presence of clinical conditions that might interfere. From 71 patients with schizophrenia two trials of the 6 MWT, administered within 3 days, were analysed. The intraclass correlation coefficient between the two tests was 0.96. The minimal detectable change was 56.2m for men and 50.2m for women. Body mass index, daily antipsychotic dose, negative and depressive symptoms, resting heart rate, age, smoking behavior and different musculoskeletal complaints were all significantly associated with the distance walked. The 6 MWT can be recommended for evaluating the functional exercise capacity in patients with schizophrenia. Some practice effect could however not be excluded.

Effects of cannabis use on age at onset in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: Cannabis use may decrease age at onset in both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, given the evidence for substantial phenotypic and genetic overlap between both disorders. METHODS: 766 patients, aged 16 to 65 years, were assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) for substance abuse/use. 676 subjects were diagnosed with schizophrenia and 90 subjects with bipolar disorder. The influence of cannabis use on age at onset in both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder was examined using regression analysis. RESULTS: Cannabis and other substance use was more frequent in patients with schizophrenia compared to the bipolar group. Both cannabis use and a schizophrenia diagnosis predicted earlier age at onset. There was a significant interaction between cannabis use and diagnosis, cannabis having a greater effect in bipolar patients. Age at onset in users of cannabis was comparable in both diagnostic groups whereas bipolar non-users were significantly older than schizophrenia non-users at onset. CONCLUSION: Cannabis use may decrease age at onset in both schizophrenia and bipolar patients and reduce the effect of diagnosis. This is consistent with the view that cannabis use may unmask a pre-existing genetic liability that is partly shared between patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Typical and atypical antipsychotics differentially affect long-term incidence rates of the metabolic syndrome in first-episode patients with schizophrenia: a retrospective chart review.

UNLABELLED: The presence of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. There are limited data on the prevalence of MetS in patients with schizophrenia at the onset of the disorder and specifically no data on patients treated in the era when only first-generation antipsychotics were available. METHODS: Data from a historic cohort of consecutively admitted first-episode patients with schizophrenia treated with first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs) were compared with an age and sex matched series of consecutive first-episode patients treated only with second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs). Rates of MetS were compared at baseline and after on average 3 years of treatment exposure. RESULTS: At first episode there was no difference in the prevalence of MetS between the historic and the current cohort. Rates of MetS increased over time in both groups, but patients started on SGAs had a three times higher incidence rate of MetS (Odds Ratio 3.6, CI 1.7-7.5). The average increase in weight and body mass index was twice as high in patients started on SGA. The difference between the FGA and SGA group was no longer significant when patients started on clozapine and olanzapine were excluded. CONCLUSION: Rates of MetS at the first episode of schizophrenia today are not different from those of patients 15 to 20 years ago. This finding counters the notion that the high rates of metabolic abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia currently reported are mainly due to lifestyle changes over time in the general population. Some SGAs have a significantly more negative impact on the incidence of MetS compared to FGAs in first-episode patients.