Respective roles of inflammation and axonal breakdown in the regulation of peripheral nerve hemopexin: an analysis in rats and in C57BL/Wlds mice.

We have previously demonstrated that one of the peripheral nerve responses to injury is the overexpression of hemopexin (HPX). Here, we demonstrate that Wallerian degeneration is required for this response, since HPX does not increase in C57BL/Wlds mice, which display a severely impaired Wallerian degeneration. We also show that HPX synthesis is dramatically increased in macrophages during their activation or after IL-6 stimulation. However, IL-6-driven HPX overexpression occurs in vivo and in vitro in the absence of substantial macrophage invasion. We conclude that, after nerve injury, HPX overexpression occurs first in Schwann cells as a result of axotomy and is subsequently regulated by inflammation. Furthermore, our results and those already described suggest that IL-6, synthesized by the various cell types producing HPX, control nerve HPX expression via paracrine and autocrine mechanisms.

Regulation of hemopexin synthesis in degenerating and regenerating rat sciatic nerve.

In injured peripheral nerves, hemopexin mRNA is expressed by fibroblasts, Schwann cells, and invading blood macrophages, and the protein accumulates in the extracellular matrix. This and its absence of regulation in injured central optic nerve suggest that hemopexin could play a positive role in peripheral nerve repair. Here, we studied the regulation of hemopexin expression in degenerating and regenerating nerves. After a sciatic nerve injury, both the synthesis of hemopexin and the level of its mRNA increase sharply during the first 2 days, leading to an accumulation of hemopexin in the nerve. Afterward, hemopexin expression decreases progressively in regenerating nerves. In permanently degenerated nerves, it is again transiently increased and then strongly decreased, whereas hemopexin from blood origin is accumulating. As part of the elucidation of the complex regulation of hemopexin expression in injured nerves, we demonstrate that interleukin-6 increases hemopexin synthesis in intact nerves, whereas adult rat serum, but not purified hemopexin, inhibits it in degenerated nerves. Hemopexin, known as acute-phase protein, is therefore one of the molecules rapidly and specifically up-regulated in injured peripheral nerves. More generally, our findings suggest that the acute phase could be not only a systemic liver-specific response but also a reaction of injured tissues themselves.

Changes in expression and localization of hemopexin and its transcripts in injured nervous system: a comparison of central and peripheral tissues.

The recent demonstration of hemopexin synthesis in the adult rat sciatic nerve and its accumulation after injury has raised the question of the possible role of this acute phase protein during the process of nerve repair. To gain insight into its function, we have compared the distribution of both hemopexin and its messenger RNA in the peripheral and the central nervous systems. We find that hemopexin is present in all types of peripheral nerves and ganglia, confined to the extracellular matrix and basement membranes of the endoneurium, blood vessels and connective tissues. After injury, hemopexin messenger RNA is overexpressed by Schwann cells, fibroblasts and invading macrophages. The content in hemopexin protein increases in all nerves studied, without changes in localization. Therefore, hemopexin does not appear to be associated with the fate of myelin or with the regeneration of a particular type of nerve fibre. In the central nervous system, hemopexin messenger RNA cannot be detected and the protein is only found in basement membranes of the vascular system (capillaries, meninges and choroid plexus). Furthermore, hemopexin and its messenger RNA remain absent from the distal part of the injured optic nerves. Our results further support the idea that hemopexin plays specific roles during nerve repair, and that it may be associated with the endoneurial extracellular matrix.

Long-lasting accumulation of hemopexin in permanently transected peripheral nerves and its down-regulation during regeneration.

We have previously demonstrated that hemopexin is present in the intact sciatic nerve and is overproduced in the distal stump after nerve transection (Swerts et al.: J Biol Chem 267:10596-10600, 1992). To get further insight into the function of this hemoprotein in nervous tissue, we have documented long-term changes in hemopexin levels in permanently degenerated (transected) and regenerating (crush-lesioned) sciatic nerves of adult rats, using immunochemical techniques. As early as a couple of days after nerve transection, the amount of hemopexin was raised in the distal stump and at the end of the proximal stump. Similarly, after a crush lesion hemopexin was rapidly increased at the injury site and in the distal part of the nerve. Subsequently, in transected nerves the level of hemopexin rose steadily and remained elevated, representing, three months after injury, over 20 times the amount found in intact contralateral nerves. In contrast, in crush-lesioned nerves, hemopexin level declined progressively in a proximodistal direction and returned to basal values 2 months after injury, together with axonal regeneration. This long-term increase in hemopexin in permanently degenerated nerves and its progressive return to normal levels during nerve regeneration suggests that hemopexin content could be regulated negatively, directly or indirectly, by growing axons. In turn, these results support the idea that hemopexin could be involved in the process of Wallerian degeneration and/or in nerve repair.

Hemopexin is synthesized in peripheral nerves but not in central nervous system and accumulates after axotomy.

In adult mammals, injured axons regrow over long distances in peripheral nerves but fail to do so in the central nervous system. Analysis of molecular components of tissue environments that allow axonal regrowth revealed a dramatic increase in the level of hemopexin, a heme-transporting protein, in long-term axotomized peripheral nerve. In contrast, hemopexin did not accumulate in lesioned optic nerve. Sciatic nerve and skeletal muscle, but not brain, were shown to be sites of synthesis of hemopexin. Thus, hemopexin expression, which can no longer be considered to be liver-specific, correlates with tissular permissivity for axonal regeneration.

Changes in permissivity for neuronal attachment and neurite outgrowth of spinal cord grey and white matters during development: a study with the 'cryoculture' bioassay.

We have used the recently developed cryoculture bioassay (Carbonetto et al., J. Neurosci., 7 (1987) 610-620) to document changes during development of CNS tissular ability to support nerve fiber growth. Neuronal attachment and neurite outgrowth of purified neurons cultured on tissue sections of rat spinal cord at various stages of development were quantified. Nerve fiber growth permissivity increased during embryonic stages, reaching as postnatal days 2-4 (P2-P4) a maximum value, higher than that found on adult PNS tissue sections. This permissivity diminished rapidly thereafter, indicating that early postnatally, the nerve fiber growth supporting ability of the CNS environment shifts abruptly from an increasingly permissive mode to an increasingly non-permissive status. Furthermore, after P4, neurite outgrowth permissivity diminished in parallel on white and grey matters, whereas neuronal attachment declined much more drastically on white matter than on grey matter. This indicates that the progressive loss of spinal cord ability to support nerve fiber growth is attributable to both grey and white matters. In several instances it also appeared that neuronal adhesion was not necessarily followed by a comparable level of nerve fiber growth, suggesting that these two processes could be regulated by different factors.

The role of extracellular signals in the differentiation of cholinergic neurons from the CNS and PNS in culture.

Rat skeletal muscle cells release in culture a macromolecule which stimulates by 25-100 fold the development of choline acetyltransferase (CAT) in cultures of new-born rat sympathetic neurons. This "cholinergic factor" impaired the development of three norepinephrine synthesizing enzymes and of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in these cultures. The 16S form of AChE failed to develop in cultures grown with the factor, but amounted to 30-40% in 3-week old cultures grown in its absence. Using the development of CAT activity in sympathetic neuron cultures as an assay, the cholinergic factor has been partially purified in 6 steps, and its hydrodynamic parameters determined. The effects of this factor on sympathetic neurotransmitter choice were qualitatively reproduced by 1-10 mM Na butyrate. The cholinergic factor increased CAT activity and decreased AChE in neuron cultures from new-born rat nodose ganglia. The factor also stimulated CAT activity in rat embryo (E14) spinal cord cultures, but stimulated the development of AChE in these cultures.

Regulation of enzymes responsible for neurotransmitter synthesis and degradation in cultured rat sympathetic neurons. III. Effects of sodium butyrate.

The effects of Na butyrate on the differentiation of newborn rat sympathetic neurons in primary cultures have been studied. Butyrate did not affect the long-term survival of these neurons in the presence of optimal concentrations of nerve growth factor, but decreased in a dose-dependent manner their protein content. In the range, 0.5-20 mM, butyrate did not modify the specific activity of lactate dehydrogenase in these cultures. Choline acetyltransferase activity developed at a 4.5- to 12-fold higher rate in cultures grown with 1-5 mM butyrate than in its absence. Concomitantly, tyrosine hydroxylase, dopa decarboxylase, dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, and acetylcholinesterase were depressed in cultures grown with butyrate. The deficit in acetylcholinesterase total activity was accompanied by an inhibition of the development of the asymmetric 16 S form of the enzyme. The deficit in tyrosine hydroxylase activity did not result from either a modification of the app Km for the enzyme's cofactor or a modification of its state of cAMP-dependent phosphorylation, but from a decrease in the number of immunoprecipitable enzyme molecules. A similar result was obtained with acetylcholinesterase. Butyrate thus reproduced in a qualitative manner the effects of a macromolecular factor purified from muscle conditioned medium on these neurons (J. P. Swerts, A. LeVan Thaï, A. Vigny, and M. J. Weber (1983) Dev. Biol. 100, 1-11; J. P. Swerts, Le Van Thai, and M. J. Weber (1984) 103, 230-234), raising the hypothesis of a common pathway in the regulation of neurotransmitter phenotype by these two agents.

Regulation of enzymes responsible for neurotransmitter synthesis and degradation in cultured rat sympathetic neurons. II. Regulation of 16 S acetylcholinesterase by conditioned medium.

The molecular forms of acetylcholinesterase (AcChE) have been studied in primary cultures of newborn rat sympathetic neurons grown either in the absence (CM- cultures) or in the presence (CM+ cultures) of muscle conditioned medium. The cultures were treated with a mitotic poison to eliminate non-neuronal cells. CAT activity increased with time in culture 4- to 20-fold faster in CM+ than in CM- cultures. In agreement with previous experiments (J.P. Swerts, A. Le Van Thaï, A. Vigny, and M.J. Weber, 1983, Develop. Biol. 100, 1-11), AcChE activity developed at a 3-fold lower rate in CM+ than in CM- cultures. This deficit in AcChE activity in CM+ cultures resulted from a deficit in the number of enzyme molecules immunoprecipitable with an antiserum raised against rat brain AcChE. In both types of cultures, AcChE forms were separated by sucrose gradient sedimentation into three main peaks corresponding to the 16 S and 10 S forms and a mixture of the 6.5 and 4 S forms. In 3-day-old CM+ and CM- cultures, the 16 S form represented 2% of the total activity. After 12-26 days, the percentage of 16 S form raised to 15-30% in CM- cultures, but remained lower than 5% in CM+ cultures. This difference was also observed when AcChE molecular forms were analyzed in the presence of protease inhibitors. A similar result was obtained by comparing cultures grown with and without a macromolecular factor partially purified from conditioned medium. These results suggest that an inverse relationship exists between the presence of 16 S AcChE and the presence of cholinergic synapses in these cultures.

Regulation of enzymes responsible for neurotransmitter synthesis and degradation in cultured rat sympathetic neurons. I. Effects of muscle-conditioned medium.

The enzymatic machinery for neurotransmitter synthesis and breakdown have been compared in sister cultures of newborn rat sympathetic neurons grown for 12-28 days either in the presence (CM+ cultures) or in the absence (CM- cultures) of a culture medium conditioned by rat skeletal muscle cells. Neuron numbers, total protein, and lactate dehydrogenase activities were identical in CM+ and CM- cultures. Choline acetyltransferase activity was 27- to 100-fold higher in homogenates of CM+ than CM- cultures, whereas acetylcholinesterase activity was 2.5-fold lower. The activities of tyrosine hydroxylase (TOH), DOPA decarboxylase, and dopamine beta-hydroxylase were all about twofold lower in homogenates from CM+ cultures. All these effects were also observed in homogenates of sympathetic neuron cultures grown with and without a macromolecular factor partially purified from CM (Weber, J. (1981). Biol. Chem. 256, 3447-3453.). Experiments of mixing homogenates from CM+ and CM- cultures suggested that the differences in each of the enzyme activities did not result from differences in the concentrations of hypothetical reversible enzyme activators and/or inhibitors. In addition, the deficit in TOH activity in CM+ cultures resulted from a decrease in the enzymatic Vmax with no significant variation in the apparent Km's for the substrate and the cofactor. An identical decrease in the Vmax was observed if TOH was assayed under phosphorylating or nonphosphorylating conditions, suggesting that this decrease did not result from differences in the state of enzyme phosphorylation. Immunoprecipitation curves of TOH activity by an anti-TOH antiserum were parallel when performed on homogenates from CM+ and CM- cultures, suggesting a difference in the number of enzyme molecules without detectable alteration of their kinetic properties.

Regional distribution of a high-affinity enkephalin-degrading peptidase ('enkephalinase') and effects of lesions suggest localization in the vicinity of opiate receptors in brain.

The distribution of a high affinity enkephalin-dipeptidylcarboxypeptidase between regions of mouse brain is markedly heterogenous and parallels that of opiate receptors. Furthermore intrastriatal administration of kainic acid as well as interruption of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lead to similar decreases in this peptidase activity and in the number of opiate receptors. On the contrary, no correlation was found between low affinity enkephalin degrading enzymes and opiate receptors.