Zfra Overrides WWOX in Suppressing the Progression of Neurodegeneration.

We reported that a 31-amino-acid Zfra protein (zinc finger-like protein that regulates apoptosis) blocks neurodegeneration and cancer growth. Zfra binds WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) to both N- and C-termini, which leads to accelerated WWOX degradation. WWOX limits the progression of neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) by binding tau and tau-hyperphosphorylating enzymes. Similarly, Zfra binds many protein targets and accelerates their degradation independently of ubiquitination. Furthermore, Zfra4-10 peptide strongly prevents the progression of AD-like symptoms in triple-transgenic (3xTg) mice during aging. Zfra4-10 peptide restores memory loss in 9-month-old 3xTg mice by blocking the aggregation of a protein cascade, including TPC6AΔ, TIAF1, and SH3GLB2, by causing aggregation of tau and amyloid ß. Zfra4-10 also suppresses inflammatory NF-κB activation. Zfra-activated Hyal-2+ CD3- CD19- Z cells in the spleen, via Hyal-2/WWOX/Smad4 signaling, are potent in cancer suppression. In this perspective review, we provide mechanistic insights regarding how Zfra overrides WWOX to induce cancer suppression and retard AD progression via Z cells.

TIAM2S-positive microglia enhance inflammation and neurotoxicity through soluble ICAM-1-mediated immune priming.

TIAM Rac1-associated GEF 2 short form (TIAM2S) as an oncoprotein alters the immunity of peripheral immune cells to construct an inflammatory tumor microenvironment. However, its role in the activation of microglia, the primary innate immune cells of the brain, and neuroinflammation remains unknown. This study investigated the mechanism underlying TIAM2S shapes immune properties of microglia to facilitate neuron damage. Human microglial clone 3 cell line (HMC3) and human brain samples were applied to determine the presence of TIAM2S in microglia by western blots and double immunostaining. Furthermore, TIAM2S transgenic mice combined with multiple reconstituted primary neuron-glial culture systems and a cytokine array were performed to explore how TIAM2S shaped immune priming of microglia and participated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuron damage. TIAM2S protein was detectable in HMC3 cells and presented in a small portion (~11.1%) of microglia in human brains referred to as TIAM2S-positive microglia. With the property of secreted soluble factor-mediated immune priming, TIAM2S-positive microglia enhanced LPS-induced neuroinflammation and neural damage in vivo and in vitro. The gain- and loss-of-function experiments showed soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) participated in neurotoxic immune priming of TIAM2S+ microglia. Together, this study demonstrated a novel TIAM2S-positive microglia subpopulation enhances inflammation and neurotoxicity through sICAM-1-mediated immune priming.

High-frequency ultrasound imaging for monitoring the function of meningeal lymphatic system in mice.

The meningeal lymphatic system drains the cerebrospinal fluid from the subarachnoid space to the cervical lymphatic system, primarily to the deep cervical lymph nodes. Perturbations of the meningeal lymphatic system have been linked to various neurologic disorders. A method to specifically monitor the flow of meningeal lymphatic system in real time is unavailable. In the present study, we adopted the high-frequency ultrasound (HFUS) with 1,1'diocatadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI)-loaded microbubble and FePt@PLGA nanoparticle contrast agents to evaluate the flow of the meningeal lymphatic system in 2-month-old mice. Statistical analysis was performed to identify changes of HFUS signals among the microbubbles, FePt@PLGA nanoparticles, and saline control groups. Approximately 15 min from the start of intracerebroventricular injection of contrast agents, their signals were evident at the deep cervical lymph nodes and lasted for at least 60 min. These signals were validated on the basis of the presence of DiI and Fe signals in the deep cervical lymph nodes. Ligation of afferent lymphatic vessels to the deep cervical lymph nodes eliminated the HFUS signals. Moreover, ablation of lymphatic vessels near the confluence of sinuses decreased the HFUS signals in the deep cervical lymph nodes. Glioma-bearing mice that exhibited reduced lymphatic vessel immunostaining signals near the confluence of sinuses had lowered HFUS signals in the deep cervical lymph nodes within 60 min. The proposed method provides a minimally invasive approach to monitor the qualities of the meningeal lymphatic system in real time as well as the progression of the meningeal lymphatic system in various brain disease animal models.

WWOX Controls Cell Survival, Immune Response and Disease Progression by pY33 to pS14 Transition to Alternate Signaling Partners.

Tumor suppressor WWOX inhibits cancer growth and retards Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Supporting evidence shows that the more strongly WWOX binds intracellular protein partners, the weaker is cancer cell growth in vivo. Whether this correlates with retardation of AD progression is unknown. Two functional forms of WWOX exhibit opposite functions. pY33-WWOX is proapoptotic and anticancer, and is essential for maintaining normal physiology. In contrast, pS14-WWOX is accumulated in the lesions of cancers and AD brains, and suppression of WWOX phosphorylation at S14 by a short peptide Zfra abolishes cancer growth and retardation of AD progression. In parallel, synthetic Zfra4-10 or WWOX7-21 peptide strengthens the binding of endogenous WWOX with intracellular protein partners leading to cancer suppression. Indeed, Zfra4-10 is potent in restoring memory loss in triple transgenic mice for AD (3xTg) by blocking the aggregation of amyloid beta 42 (Aß42), enhancing degradation of aggregated proteins, and inhibiting activation of inflammatory NF-κB. In light of the findings, Zfra4-10-mediated suppression of cancer and AD is due, in part, to an enhanced binding of endogenous WWOX and its binding partners. In this perspective review article, we detail the molecular action of WWOX in the HYAL-2/WWOX/SMAD4 signaling for biological effects, and discuss WWOX phosphorylation forms in interacting with binding partners, leading to suppression of cancer growth and retardation of AD progression.

Erratum: Cilostazol eliminates radiation-resistant glioblastoma by re-evoking big conductance calcium-activated potassium channel activity.

[This corrects the article on p. 1148 in vol. 11, PMID: 33948351.].

Disulfiram Sensitizes a Therapeutic-Resistant Glioblastoma to the TGF-ß Receptor Inhibitor.

Despite neurosurgery following radiation and chemotherapy, residual glioblastoma (GBM) cells develop therapeutic resistance (TR) leading to recurrence. The GBM heterogeneity confers TR. Therefore, an effective strategy must target cancer stem cells (CSCs) and other malignant cancer cells. TGF-ß and mesenchymal transition are the indicators for poor prognoses. The activity of aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs) is a functional CSC marker. However, the interplay between TGF-ß and ALDHs remains unclear. We developed radiation-resistant and radiation-temozolomide-resistant GBM models to investigate the underlying mechanisms conferring TR. Galunisertib is a drug targeting TGF-ß receptors. Disulfiram (DSF) is an anti-alcoholism drug which functions by inhibiting ALDHs. The anti-tumor effects of combining DSF and Galunisertib were evaluated by in vitro cell grow, wound healing, Transwell assays, and in vivo orthotopic GBM model. Mesenchymal-like phenotype was facilitated by TGF-ß in TR GBM. Additionally, TR activated ALDHs. DSF inhibited TR-induced cell migration and tumor sphere formation. However, DSF did not affect the tumor growth in vivo. Spectacularly, DSF sensitized TR GBM to Galunisertib both in vitro and in vivo. ALDH activity positively correlated with TGF-ß-induced mesenchymal properties in TR GBM. CSCs and mesenchymal-like GBM cells targeted together by combining DSF and Galunisertib may be a good therapeutic strategy for recurrent GBM patients.

WWOX and Its Binding Proteins in Neurodegeneration.

WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) is known as one of the risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disease. WWOX binds Tau via its C-terminal SDR domain and interacts with Tau phosphorylating enzymes ERK, JNK, and GSK-3ß, and thereby limits AD progression. Loss of WWOX in newborns leads to severe neural diseases and early death. Gradual loss of WWOX protein in the hippocampus and cortex starting from middle age may slowly induce aggregation of a protein cascade that ultimately causes accumulation of extracellular amyloid beta plaques and intracellular tau tangles, along with reduction in inhibitory GABAergic interneurons, in AD patients over 70 years old. Age-related increases in pS14-WWOX accumulation in the brain promotes neuronal degeneration. Suppression of Ser14 phosphorylation by a small peptide Zfra leads to enhanced protein degradation, reduction in NF-κB-mediated inflammation, and restoration of memory loss in triple transgenic mice for AD. Intriguingly, tumor suppressors p53 and WWOX may counteract each other in vivo, which leads to upregulation of AD-related protein aggregation in the brain and lung. WWOX has numerous binding proteins. We reported that the stronger the binding between WWOX and its partners, the better the suppression of cancer growth and reduction in inflammation. In this regard, the stronger complex formation between WWOX and partners may provide a better blockade of AD progression. In this review, we describe whether and how WWOX and partner proteins control inflammatory response and protein aggregation and thereby limit AD progression.

Cilostazol eliminates radiation-resistant glioblastoma by re-evoking big conductance calcium-activated potassium channel activity.

In spite of radio- and chemotherapy, glioblastoma (GBM) develops therapeutic resistance leading to recurrence and poor prognosis. Therefore, understanding the underlying mechanisms of resistance is important to improve the treatment of GBM. To this end, we developed a radiation-resistant cell model by exposure to consecutive periods of irradiation. Simultaneously, single high-dose irradiation was introduced to determine "when" GBM developed consecutive irradiation-induced resistance (CIIR). We found that CIIR promoted TGF-ß secretion, activated pro-survival Akt, and downregulated p21 in a p53-independent manner. Furthermore, CIIR upregulated multidrug-resistant proteins, resulting in temozolomide resistance. CIIR GBM also enhanced cell mobility and accelerated cell proliferation. The big-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel (BK channel) is highly expressed and activated in GBM. However, CIIR diminishes BK channel activity in an expression-independent manner. Cilostazol is a phosphodiesterase-3 inhibitor for the treatment of intermittent claudication and was able to reverse CIIR-induced BK channel inactivation. Paxilline, a BK channel blocker, promoted cell migration and proliferation in parental GBM cells. In contrast, Cilostazol inhibited CIIR-induced cell motility, proliferation, and the ability to form tumor spheres. Moreover, we established a radiation-resistant GBM in vivo model by intracranially injecting CIIR GBM cells into the brains of NOD/SCID mice. We found that Cilostazol delayed tumor in vivo growth and prolonged survival. As such, inactivation of the BK channel assists GBM in developing radiation resistance. Accordingly, restoring BK channel activity may be an effective strategy to improve therapeutic efficacy, and cilostazol could be repurposed to treat GBM.

Therapeutic Zfra4-10 or WWOX7-21 Peptide Induces Complex Formation of WWOX with Selective Protein Targets in Organs that Leads to Cancer Suppression and Spleen Cytotoxic Memory Z Cell Activation In Vivo.

Synthetic Zfra4-10 and WWOX7-21 peptides strongly suppress cancer growth in vivo. Hypothetically, Zfra4-10 binds to the membrane Hyal-2 of spleen Z cells and activates the Hyal-2/WWOX/SMAD4 signaling for cytotoxic Z cell activation to kill cancer cells. Stimulation of membrane WWOX in the signaling complex by a WWOX epitope peptide, WWOX7-21, is likely to activate the signaling. Here, mice receiving Zfra4-10 or WWOX7-21 peptide alone exhibited an increased binding of endogenous tumor suppressor WWOX with ERK, C1qBP, NF-κB, Iba1, p21, CD133, JNK1, COX2, Oct4, and GFAP in the spleen, brain, and/or lung which led to cancer suppression. However, when in combination, Zfra4-10 and WWOX7-21 reduced the binding of WWOX with target proteins and allowed tumor growth in vivo. In addition to Zfra4-10 and WWOX7-21 peptides, stimulating the membrane Hyal-2/WWOX complex with Hyal-2 antibody and sonicated hyaluronan (HAson) induced Z cell activation for killing cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, Zfra4-10 binds to membrane Hyal-2, induces dephosphorylation of WWOX at pY33 and pY61, and drives Z cell activation for the anticancer response. Thus, Zfra4-10 and WWOX7-21 peptides, HAson, and the Hyal-2 antibody are of therapeutic potential for cancer suppression.

A p53/TIAF1/WWOX triad exerts cancer suppression but may cause brain protein aggregation due to p53/WWOX functional antagonism.

BACKGROUND: Tumor suppressor WWOX physically binds p53 and TIAF1 and together induces apoptosis and tumor suppression. To understand the molecular action, here we investigated the formation of WWOX/TIAF1/p53 triad and its regulation of cancer cell migration, anchorage-independent growth, SMAD promoter activation, apoptosis, and potential role in neurodegeneration. METHODS: Time-lapse microscopy was used to measure the extent of cell migration. Protein/protein interactions were determined by co-immunoprecipitation, FRET microscopy, and yeast two-hybrid analysis. The WWOX/TIAF1/p53 triad-mediated cancer suppression was determined by measuring the extent of cell migration, anchorage-independent growth, SMAD promoter activation, and apoptosis. p53-deficient lung cancer cell growth in nude mice was carried out to assess the tumor suppressor function of ectopic p53 and/or WWOX. RESULTS: Wwox-deficient MEF cells exhibited constitutive Smad3 and p38 activation and migrated individually and much faster than wild type cells. TGF-ß increased the migration of wild type MEF cells, but significantly suppressed Wwox knockout cell migration. While each of the triad proteins is responsive to TGF-ß stimulation, ectopically expressed triad proteins suppressed cancer cell migration, anchorage-independent growth, and SMAD promoter activation, as well as caused apoptosis. The effects are due in part to TIAF1 polymerization and its retention of p53 and WWOX in the cytoplasm. p53 and TIAF1 were effective in suppressing anchorage-independent growth, and WWOX ineffective. p53 and TIAF1 blocked WWOX or Smad4-regulated SMAD promoter activation. WWOX suppressed lung cancer NCI-H1299 growth and inhibited splenomegaly by inflammatory immune response, and p53 blocked the event in nude mice. The p53/WWOX-cancer mice exhibited BACE upregulation, APP degradation, tau tangle formation, and amyloid ß generation in the brain and lung. CONCLUSION: The WWOX/TIAF1/p53 triad is potent in cancer suppression by blocking cancer cell migration, anchorage-independent growth and SMAD promoter activation, and causing apoptosis. Yet, p53 may functionally antagonize with WWOX. p53 blocks WWOX inhibition of inflammatory immune response induced by cancer, and this leads to protein aggregation in the brain as seen in the Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegeneration.

Strategies by which WWOX-deficient metastatic cancer cells utilize to survive via dodging, compromising, and causing damage to WWOX-positive normal microenvironment.

Proapoptotic tumor suppressor WWOX is upregulated in the early stage of cancer initiation, which probably provides limitation to cancer growth and progression. Later, WWOX protein is reduced to enhance cancer cell growth, migration, invasiveness and metastasis. To understand how WWOX works in controlling cancer progression, here we demonstrate that apoptotic stress mediated by ectopic WWOX stimulated cancer cells to secrete basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in order to support capillary microtubule formation. This event may occur in the cancer initiation stage. Later, when WWOX loss occurs in cancer cells, hyaluronidase production is then increased in the cancer cells to facilitate metastasis. We determined that inhibition of membrane hyaluronidase Tyr216-phosphorylated Hyal-2 by antibody suppresses cancer growth in vivo. WWOX-negative (WWOX-) cells dodged WWOX+cells in the microenvironment by migrating individually backward to avoid physical contacts and yet significantly upregulating the redox activity of WWOX+parental cells or other WWOX+cell types for causing apoptosis. Upon detecting the presence of WWOX+cells from a distance, WWOX- cells exhibit activation of MIF, Hyal-2, Eph, and Wnt pathways, which converges to MEK/ERK signaling and enables WWOX- cells to evade WWOX+cells. Inhibition of each pathway by antibody or specific chemicals enables WWOX- cells to merge with WWOX+cells. In addition, exogenous TGF-ß assists WWOX- cells to migrate collectively forward and merge with WWOX+cells. Metastatic WWOX- cancer cells frequently secrete high levels of TGF-ß, which conceivably assists them to merge with WWOX+cells in target organs and secure a new home base in the WWOX+microenvironment. Together, loss of WWOX allows cancer cells to develop strategies to dodge, compromise and even kill WWOX-positive cells in microenvironment.

WWOX Phosphorylation, Signaling, and Role in Neurodegeneration.

Homozygous null mutation of tumor suppressor WWOX/Wwox gene leads to severe neural diseases, metabolic disorders and early death in the newborns of humans, mice and rats. WWOX is frequently downregulated in the hippocampi of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). In vitro analysis revealed that knockdown of WWOX protein in neuroblastoma cells results in aggregation of TRAPPC6AΔ, TIAF1, amyloid ß, and Tau in a sequential manner. Indeed, TRAPPC6AΔ and TIAF1, but not tau and amyloid ß, aggregates are present in the brains of healthy mid-aged individuals. It is reasonable to assume that very slow activation of a protein aggregation cascade starts sequentially with TRAPPC6AΔ and TIAF1 aggregation at mid-ages, then caspase activation and APP de-phosphorylation and degradation, and final accumulation of amyloid ß and Tau aggregates in the brains at greater than 70 years old. WWOX binds Tau-hyperphosphorylating enzymes (e.g., GSK-3ß) and blocks their functions, thereby supporting neuronal survival and differentiation. As a neuronal protective hormone, 17ß-estradiol (E2) binds WWOX at an NSYK motif in the C-terminal SDR (short-chain alcohol dehydrogenase/reductase) domain. In this review, we discuss how WWOX and E2 block protein aggregation during neurodegeneration, and how a 31-amino-acid zinc finger-like Zfra peptide restores memory loss in mice.

Glioblastoma cells labeled by robust Raman tags for enhancing imaging contrast.

Complete removal of a glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), a highly malignant brain tumor, is challenging due to its infiltrative characteristics. Therefore, utilizing imaging agents such as fluorophores to increase the contrast between GBM and normal cells can help neurosurgeons to locate residual cancer cells during image guided surgery. In this work, Raman tag based labeling and imaging for GBM cells in vitro is described and evaluated. The cell membrane of a GBM adsorbs a substantial amount of functionalized Raman tags through overexpression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and "broadcasts" stronger pre-defined Raman signals than normal cells. The average ratio between Raman signals from a GBM cell and autofluorescence from a normal cell can be up to 15. In addition, the intensity of these images is stable under laser illuminations without suffering from the severe photo-bleaching that usually occurs in fluorescent imaging. Our results show that labeling and imaging GBM cells via robust Raman tags is a viable alternative method to distinguish them from normal cells. This Raman tag based method can be used solely or integrated into an existing fluorescence system to improve the identification of infiltrative glial tumor cells around the boundary, which will further reduce GBM recurrence. In addition, it can also be applied/extended to other types of cancer to improve the effectiveness of image guided surgery.

Zfra restores memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease triple-transgenic mice by blocking aggregation of TRAPPC6AΔ, SH3GLB2, tau, and amyloid ß, and inflammatory NF-κB activation.

INTRODUCTION: Zinc finger-like protein that regulates apoptosis (Zfra) is a naturally occurring 31-amino-acid protein. Synthetic peptides Zfra1-31 and Zfra4-10 are known to effectively block the growth of many types of cancer cells. METHODS: Ten-month-old triple-transgenic (3×Tg) mice for Alzheimer's disease (AD) received synthetic Zfra peptides via tail vein injections, followed by examining restoration of memory deficits. RESULTS: Zfra significantly downregulated TRAPPC6AΔ, SH3GLB2, tau, and amyloid ß (Αß) aggregates in the brains of 3×Tg mice and effectively restored their memory capabilities. Zfra inhibited melanoma-induced neuronal death in the hippocampus and plaque formation in the cortex. Mechanistically, Zfra blocked the aggregation of amyloid ß 42 and many serine-containing peptides in vitro, suppressed tumor necrosis factor-mediated NF-κB activation, and bound cytosolic proteins for accelerating their degradation in ubiquitin/proteasome-independent manner. DISCUSSION: Zfra peptides exhibit a strong efficacy in blocking tau aggregation and amyloid Αß formation and restore memory deficits in 3×Tg mice, suggesting its potential for treatment of AD.

HYAL-2-WWOX-SMAD4 Signaling in Cell Death and Anticancer Response.

Hyaluronidase HYAL-2 is a membrane-anchored protein and also localizes, in part, in the lysosome. Recent study from animal models revealed that both HYAL-1 and HYAL-2 are essential for the metabolism of hyaluronan (HA). Hyal-2 deficiency is associated with chronic thrombotic microangiopathy with hemolytic anemia in mice due to over accumulation of high molecular size HA. HYAL-2 is essential for platelet generation. Membrane HYAL-2 degrades HA bound by co-receptor CD44. Also, in a non-canonical signal pathway, HYAL-2 serves as a receptor for transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) to signal with downstream tumor suppressors WWOX and SMAD4 to control gene transcription. When SMAD4 responsive element is overly driven by the HYAL-2-WWOX-SMAD4 signaling complex, cell death occurs. When rats are subjected to traumatic brain injury, over accumulation of a HYAL-2-WWOX complex occurs in the nucleus to cause neuronal death. HA induces the signaling of HYAL-2-WWOX-SMAD4 and relocation of the signaling complex to the nucleus. If the signaling complex is overexpressed, bubbling cell death occurs in WWOX-expressing cells. In addition, a small synthetic peptide Zfra (zinc finger-like protein that regulates apoptosis) binds membrane HYAL-2 of non-T/non-B spleen HYAL-2+ CD3- CD19- Z lymphocytes and activates the cells to generate memory anticancer response against many types of cancer cells in vivo. Whether the HYAL-2-WWOX-SMAD4 signaling complex is involved is discussed. In this review and opinion article, we have updated the current knowledge of HA, HYAL-2 and WWOX, HYAL-2-WWOX-SMAD4 signaling, bubbling cell death, and Z cell activation for memory anticancer response.

A Single Postnatal Dose of Dexamethasone Enhances Memory of Rat Pups Later in Life.

Postnatal dexamethasone (Dex) therapy is associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, which might be related to its timing of administration. We used time-dated pregnant Wistar albino rats, whose litters were divided into experimental (Dex) and control groups intraperitoneally administered one dose of Dex (0.5 mg/kg) or normal saline (NS), respectively, at either day 1 (P1) or 7 (P7). The magnitude of the contextual freezing response and performance on the Morris water maze were significantly higher in the Dex-P7 group than in those of the other groups at P56. Dendritic spine density, membranous expression of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunit NR2A/2B, and postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95) were significantly higher in the Dex-P7 group than in the other groups. Furthermore, cytosolic expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) was significantly higher in the Dex group than in NS group. Moreover, Dex administration at P7 increased cell proliferation, neuronal differentiation, and the survival of newly born neurons in the dentate gyrus. These results suggest Dex at P7 enhances the acquisition of contextual fear and spatial memory later in life due to the modulation of the newly born neurons, increase in dendritic spine number, and NMDAR expression.

Zfra induction of memory anticancer response via a novel immune cell.

When naive mice receive short Zfra peptides via tail vein injections, they develop lifetime resistance to growth of many cancer xenografts, due to activation of a novel spleen memory Hyal-2+ CD3- CD19- Z lymphocyte. In vitro education of spleen cells with Zfra activates Z cell for conferring memory anticancer response in vivo.

Evidence for the Inhibition by Temozolomide, an Imidazotetrazine Family Alkylator, of Intermediate-Conductance Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels in Glioma Cells.

BACKGROUND: Temozolomide (TMZ), an oral alkylator of the imidazotetrazine family, is used to treat glioma. Whether this drug has any ionic effects in glioma cells remains largely unclear. METHODS: With the aid of patch-clamp technology, we investigated the effects of TMZ on the ionic currents in U373 glioma cells. The mRNA expression of KCNN4 (KCa3.1) in U373 glioma cells and TMZ's effect on K+ currents in these KCNN4 siRNA-transfected U373 cells were investigated. RESULTS: In whole-cell recordings, TMZ decreased the amplitude of voltage-dependent K+ currents (IK) in U373 cells. TMZ-induced IK inhibition was reversed by ionomycin or 1-ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone (1-EBIO). In cell-attached configuration, TMZ concentration-dependently reduced the activity of intermediate-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (IKCa) channels with an IC50 value of 9.2 µM. Chlorzoxazone or 1-EBIO counteracted the TMZ-induced inhibition of IKCa channels. Although TMZ was unable to modify single-channel conductance, its inhibition of IKCa channels was weakly voltage-dependent and accompanied by a significant prolongation in the slow component of mean closed time. However, neitherlarge-conductance Ca2+-activated (BKCa) nor inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels were affected by TMZ. In current-clamp mode, TMZ depolarized the cell membrane and 1-EBIO reversed TMZ-induced depolarization. TMZ had no effect on IK in KCNN4 siRNA-transfected U373 cells. CONCLUSION: In addition to the DNA damage it does, its inhibitory effect on IKCa channels accompanied by membrane depolarization could be an important mechanism underlying TMZ-induced antineoplastic actions.

Elevated cerebrospinal fluid endothelin 1 associated with neurogenic pulmonary edema in children with enterovirus 71 encephalitis.

OBJECTIVES: Neurogenic pulmonary edema (NPE) is a fatal complication in children with enterovirus 71 (EV71) encephalitis. Endothelin 1 (ET-1), a potent vasoconstrictor, can induce pulmonary edema in rats via intrathecal injections. Thus, it was hypothesized that ET-1 in the central nervous system may correlate with NPE in children with EV71 encephalitis. METHODS: Clinical data and ET-1 in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were compared between three groups: (1) EV71 encephalitis with NPE; (2) EV71 encephalitis without NPE; and (3) non-EV71 aseptic meningitis. ET-1 immunostaining was performed on the brainstem of autopsy patients. RESULTS: The EV71 with NPE group showed significantly increased CSF levels of ET-1 compared to the EV71 without NPE and the non-EV71 aseptic meningitis groups (both p<0.01). The optimum cut-off point of ET-1 to predict NPE in EV71 patients, based on the receiver operating characteristic curve, was 0.5 pg/ml (sensitivity 83%, specificity 100%). Immunostaining in the brainstem showed increased ET-1 expression, mainly in the oligodendrocytes, in EV71 with NPE patients compared with control patients. CONCLUSION: ET-1 in the central nervous system may play a role in the development of NPE in children with EV71 infection and could be used as a biomarker or therapeutic target for NPE in EV71 encephalitis.