Anticancer Activity of Encapsulated Pearl Millet Polyphenol-Rich Extract against Proliferating and Non-Proliferating Breast Cancer Cells In Vitro.

Plant-derived polyphenols are bioactive compounds with potential health-promoting properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity. However, their beneficial effects and biomedical applications may be limited due to their low bioavailability. In the present study, we have considered a microencapsulation-based drug delivery system to investigate the anticancer effects of polyphenol-rich (apigenin, caffeic acid, and luteolin) fractions, extracted from a cereal crop pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), using three phenotypically different cellular models of breast cancer in vitro, namely triple negative HCC1806, ER-positive HCC1428, and HER2-positive AU565 cells. Encapsulated polyphenolic extract induced apoptotic cell death in breast cancer cells with different receptor status, whereas it was ineffective against non-tumorigenic MCF10F cells. Encapsulated polyphenolic extract was also found to be cytotoxic against drug-resistant doxorubicin-induced senescent breast cancer cells that were accompanied by increased levels of apoptotic and necrotic markers, cell cycle inhibitor p21 and proinflammatory cytokine IL8. Furthermore, diverse responses to the stimulation with encapsulated polyphenolic extract in senescent breast cancer cells were observed, as in the encapsulated polyphenolic extract-treated non-proliferating AU565 cells, the autophagic pathway, here cytotoxic autophagy, was also induced, as judged by elevated levels of beclin-1 and LC3b. We show for the first time the anti-breast cancer activity of encapsulated polyphenolic extract of pearl millet and postulate that microencapsulation may be a useful approach for potentiating the anticancer effects of phytochemicals with limited bioavailability.

Degradation of a mixture of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by commercial effective microorganisms.

The study focused on the contribution of effective microorganisms (EM) and their consortia, used in commercial biological preparations and formulations for soil revitalization, to the degradation of a mixture of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) commonly found in the soil environment. PAHs, diverse forms of which are present in the environment, never occur individually but always as a part of a chemical mixture. Therefore, the research presented in this article, focusing on the EM impact on the mixture of PAHs, reflects the conditions most similar to natural ones. On Day 35 of the experiment, PAH levels decreased by 75.5-95.5%. The highest PAHs degradation efficiency was achieved for fluorene, with a preparation containing eight bacteria strains from the Bacillus genus: B. coagulans, B. amyloliquefaciens, B. laterosporus, B. licheniformis, B. mucilaginosus, B. megaterium, B. polymyxa, and B. pumilus. All tested preparations containing bacterial consortia and a preparation with the yeast S. cerevisiae intensified the PAHs degradation more effectively than formulations including only the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica or a mixture of Debaryomyces hansenii and Bacillus. The designed and proposed research will contribute to the development of biotechnological methods - bioremediation by microorganisms that are safe for the human and environment health.

Microplastics - An emerging contaminants for algae. Critical review and perspectives.

In recent decades, micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) became persistent contaminants of emerging concern to the environment. These xenobiotic are found in all components of environment, including living organisms. Ubiquitous contamination of aquatic ecosystems with these pollutants is studied worldwide. In aquatic ecosystems, algae are important primary producers providing nutrients for a wide range of species, so they play a fundamental role in maintaining the balance of the marine ecosystem. Thus, the toxic effect of pollutants on algae can have a negative impact on organisms at higher trophic levels. The microplastic toxic effect on algae is studied by many researches, leading to many different conclusions due to different experimental designs. The polymer type is an important parameter, as it influences the growth rate, the photosynthetic pigments content, and the oxidative stress. Polystyrene is considered more toxic than other types of microplastics. Studies show that plastics of a smaller size and with a positive surface charge have a higher toxic effect on algae. MNPs toxicity to algae strongly depends on their concentration, and becomes more severe as its level increase. Moreover, size and concentration of plastic particles influence changes in reactive oxygen species and the enzymatic antioxidant activity. MNPs are also a vector for other environmental pollutants. Effects of pollutant-MNPs complexes are more often found to be antagonistic than synergetic, in consequence of toxic substance adsorption on the MNPs surface and their lower bioavailability to algae. The aim of this review was to summarize effects and impacts of microplastics and coexisting pollutants on algal populations, on the basis of currently available literature.

A Miniaturized Sample Preparation Method for the Determination of Vitamins A and E in Food Products.

A new analytical approach to the simultaneous identification and quantification of vitamins A and E in three representative matrices (Parmesan, spinach, and almonds) was developed. The analyses were based on high-performance liquid chromatography with UV-VIS/DAD detection. The procedure was optimized by a significant reduction in the weight of the tested products and quantities of reagents added during the saponification and extraction stages. A full method validation study was performed for retinol at two concentration levels (LOQ and 200 × LOQ), which showed satisfactory results, with recoveries ranging from 98.8 to 110.1%, and an average CV of 8.9%. Linearity was tested in the range of 1-500 µg/mL and showed the coefficient of determination R2 = 0.999. The satisfactory recovery and precision parameters were achieved for α-tocopherol (LOQ and 500 × LOQ) in the range of 70.6-143.2%, with a mean CV equal to 6.5%. The observed linearity for this analyte in the concentration range of 1.06-532.0 µg/mL was R2 = 0.999. The average extended uncertainties were estimated, using a top-down approach of 15.9% and 17.6% for vitamin E and A, respectively. Finally, the method was successfully applied to determine vitamins in 15 commercial samples.

Analysis of Residues in Environmental Samples.

The state of the environment is very important for our lives and for that of future generations [...].

Effect of microorganisms on degradation of fluopyram and tebuconazole in laboratory and field studies.

Nowadays, chemical pesticides are the most widespread measure used to control crop pests and diseases. However, their negative side effects prompted the researchers to search for alternative options that were safer for the environment and people. Pesticide biodegradation by microorganisms seems to be the most reasonable alternative. The aim of the laboratory studies was to assess the influence of Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma harzianum, used separately and combined together, on fluopyram and tebuconazole degradation. In field studies, the degradation of fluopyram and tebuconazole after the application of the biological preparation in apples was investigated. The results from the laboratory studies show that the greatest decomposition of fluopyram and tebuconazole was observed in tests with T. harzianum in a range of 74.3-81.5% and 44.5-49.2%, respectively. The effectiveness of fluopyram degradation by B. subtilis was 7.5%, while tebuconazole inhibited bacterial cell growth and no degradation was observed. The mixture of microorganisms affected the degradation of fluopyram in a range of 8.3-24.1% and tebuconazole in a range of 6.1-23.3%. The results from the field studies show that degradation increased from 3.1 to 30.8% for fluopyram and from 0.4 to 14.3% for tebuconazole when compared to control samples. The first-order kinetics models were used to simulate the residue dissipation in apples. For the determination of pesticide residues, the QuEChERS method for apple sample preparation was performed, followed by GC-MS/MS technique. Immediately after the treatments, the maximum residue level (MRL) values for tebuconazole were exceeded, and it was equal to 100.7% MRL for the Red Jonaprince variety and 132.3% MRL for the Gala variety. Thus, preharvest time is recommended to obtain apples in which the concentration of pesticides is below the MRL and which can be recognized as safe for humans.

Insecticide and fungicide effect on thermal and olfactory behavior of bees and their disappearance in bees' tissues.

Plant protection products may affect the behavior of organisms which are not a target of control. The effect of Karate Zeon 050 CS (λ-Cyhalothrin -based insecticide; λ-CBI) and Amistar 250 SC (Azoxystrobin-based fungicide; ABF) was determined on Apis mellifera worker attraction towards their own colony odour, along with temperature preferences. Bees exposed to pesticides prefer the environment with the odour of their nest less often than the control group, and that insecticide-treated bees chose warmer environments than the control insects. The observed differences in the bees, especially with attraction towards their own colony, were dependent on the time of day. Chromatographic analyses indicated that λ-Cyhalothrin elimination was half that of Azoxystrobin in bee organisms, and both agents retarded each other's clearance. Mathematical modeling estimated that despite a relatively high disappearance rate, both compounds might have been bio-accumulated at relatively high level.

Effect of Three Commercial Formulations Containing Effective Microorganisms (EM) on Diflufenican and Flurochloridone Degradation in Soil.

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of effective microorganisms (EM) present in biological formulations improving soil quality on degradation of two herbicides, diflufenican and flurochloridone. Three commercially available formulations containing EM were used: a formulation containing Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Bacillus, and Rhodopseudomonas bacteria and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae; a formulation containing Streptomyces, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Rhodococcus, Cellulomonas, Arthrobacter, Paenibacillusa, and Pseudonocardia bacteria; and a formulation containing eight strains of Bacillus bacteria, B. megaterium, B. amyloliquefaciens, B. pumilus, B. licheniformis, B. coagulans, B. laterosporus, B. mucilaginosus, and B. polymyxa. It was demonstrated that those formulations influenced degradation of herbicides. All studied formulations containing EM reduced the diflufenican degradation level, from 35.5% to 38%, due to an increased acidity of the soil environment and increased durability of that substance at lower pH levels. In the case of flurochloridone, all studied EM formulations increased degradation of that active substance by 19.3% to 31.2% at the most. For control samples, equations describing kinetics of diflufenican and flurochloridone elimination were plotted, and a time of the half-life of these substances in laboratory conditions was calculated, amounting to 25.7 for diflufenican and 22.4 for flurochloridone.

Simultaneous Determination of Multi-Class Pesticide Residues and PAHs in Plant Material and Soil Samples Using the Optimized QuEChERS Method and Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis.

New analytical approaches to the simultaneous identification and quantification of 94 pesticides and 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in five representative matrices (pepper, apple, lettuce, wheat, and soil) were developed. The analyses were based on gas chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). The procedure was optimized by changing the solvent used during the extraction, from acetonitrile to the acetone: n-hexane mixture at a volume ratio of 1:4 (v/v), as well as the use of a reduced amount of water during the extraction of compounds from cereals. An additional modification was the use of florisil instead of GCB in the sample cleanup step. A full method validation study was performed, at two concentration levels (LOQ and 1000 × LOQ), which showed satisfactory results for all analytes from the PAHs group, with recoveries ranging from 70.7-115.1%, and an average RSD of 3.9%. Linearity was tested in the range of 0.001-1.000 mg/kg and showed coefficients of determination (R2) ≥ 0.99 for all PAHs. Satisfactory recovery and precision parameters (LOQ and 100 × LOQ) were achieved for almost all analytes from the pesticide group in the range of 70.1-119.3% with the mean RSD equal to 5.9%. The observed linearity for all analytes in the concentration range of 0.005-1.44 mg/kg was R2 ≥ 0.99, with the exception of famoxadone, chizalofop-p-ethyl, prothioconazole, spirodiclofen, tefluthrin, and zoxamid. The extended uncertainties were estimated, using a top-down approach of 9.9% (average) and 15.3% (average) for PAHs and pesticides samples, respectively (the coverage factor k = 2, the 95% confidence level). Ultimately, the method was successfully applied to determine pesticide residues in commercial samples of fruit, vegetables and grain, and soil samples for PAHs, which were collected from selected places in the Podkarpacie region. A total of 38 real samples were tested, in which 10 pesticides and 13 PAHs were determined. Proposed changes allow us to shorten the sample preparation time (by 20%) and to reduce the consumption of organic solvents (by 17%). The use of florisil for sample cleanup, instead of GCB, improves the recovery of compounds with flat particles.

Application of Green Algal Planktochlorella nurekis Biomasses to Modulate Growth of Selected Microbial Species.

As microalgae are producers of proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, pigments, vitamins and unique secondary metabolites, microalgal biotechnology has gained attention in recent decades. Microalgae can be used for biomass production and to obtain biotechnologically important products. Here, we present the application of a method of producing a natural, biologically active composite obtained from unicellular microalgae of the genus Planktochlorella sp. as a modulator of the growth of microorganisms that can be used in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries by exploiting the phenomenon of photo-reprogramming of metabolism. The combination of red and blue light allows the collection of biomass with unique biochemical profiles, especially fatty acid composition (Patent Application P.429620). The ethanolic and water extracts of algae biomass inhibited the growth of a number of pathogenic bacteria, namely Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus PCM 458, Streptococcus pyogenes PCM 2318, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli PCM 2209 and Candida albicans ATCC 14053. The algal biocomposite obtained according to our procedure can be used also as a prebiotic supplement. The presented technology may allow the limitation of the use of antibiotics and environmentally harmful chemicals commonly used in preparations against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli or Candida spp.

Essential Oils of Seven Lamiaceae Plants and Their Antioxidant Capacity.

Oxidative stress has been reported as a cause of many diseases like Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. Oxidative stress can also lead to cancer formation by promoting tumor development and progression. Antioxidants derived from Lamiaceae plants play an important role in natural medicine, pharmacology, cosmetology, and aromatherapy. Herein, we examine the antioxidative capacity of essential oils from seven aromatic Lamiaceae plants against the synthetic radicals DPPH and ABTS. Among the essential oils analyzed, the most robust scavenging capacities were found in mixtures of volatile compounds from thyme and savory. The scavenging activity of tested EOs against the ABTS radical was clearly higher than activity towards DPPH. Analysis of essential oils with weaker antioxidant activity has shown that volatile compounds from marjoram, sage, and hyssop were more active than EOs from lavender and mint. It can be suggested that the potent antioxidant capacity of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and savory (Satyreja hortensis) are related to a high level of phenolic constituents, such as thymol and carvacrol. On the other hand, the elevated antioxidative power of marjoram, sage, and hyssop essential oils may also be due to their terpinene, o-cymene, terpinolene, and terpinen-4-ol constituents. Although non-phenolic components are less active than thymol or carvacrol, they may affect antioxidant capacity synergistically.

Characteristics of Dietary Fatty Acids Isolated from Historic Dental Calculus of the 17th- and 18th-Century Inhabitants of the Subcarpathian Region (Poland).

Dental calculus analysis can be a valuable source of archaeological knowledge, since it preserves not only microbial and host biomolecules but also dietary and environmental debris, as well as metabolic products likely originating from dietary and craft activities. Here we described GC-MS analysis of a set of historic dental calculus samples from the front teeth of the mandibles of seven individuals found in 17th- and 18th-century graves in the city of Rzeszow, located in South-eastern Poland. We have found that only saturated fatty acids, which are characteristic for fats of animal origin, were present in the tested samples. Our preliminary results indicate that the diet of modern-period inhabitants of Rzeszow was rich in animal products, such as meat and dairy products.

Assessment of risk to honey bees and honey consumers resulting from the insect exposure to captan, thiacloprid, penthiopyrad, and λ-cyhalothrin used in a commercial apple orchard.

Samples of leaves, flowers, soil, pollen, bee workers, bee brood, honey, and beeswax were collected to assess the possibility of a transfer of captan, thiacloprid, penthiopyrad, and λ-cyhalothrin from apple trees of Idared variety to honey bee (Apis mellifera) hives. Chemical analyses were performed using the Agilent 7890 Gas Chromatograph equipped with the Micro-cell Electron Capture Detector. It was found that significant amounts of penthiopyrad, the active ingredient of Fontelis 200 SC, were present in leaves, flowers, pollen, bee workers, and beeswax. Simultaneously, captan was present in the brood, worker bees, and honey samples. Significant levels of the captan residues were also detected on the soil surface. In honey samples, captan residue levels exceeded the acceptable standard, reaching 160% of its maximum residue level. However, in no case the amounts of captan, thiacloprid, penthiopyrad, and λ-cyhalothrin ingested with honey by an adult consumer exceeded the level of 0.02% of the acceptable daily intake. Despite the trace amounts of pesticide residues in honey samples collected during the field trial, bee honey consumption can be considered safe. An adult consumer can safely consume about 16 kg of honey.

The dynamics of pyrethroid residues and Cyp P450 gene expression in insects depends on the circadian clock.

A circadian clock may underlie pesticide resistance mechanisms in organisms that are very important for humans, for example, in the honey bee (Apis mellifera). Using the gas chromatography, we evaluated the daily variability in the λ-cyhalothrin degradation rate in bodies of guards and forager bees, Apis mellifera. Additionally, using the RT-qPCR method, we studied expression levels of selected cytochrome P450 genes after exposure to λ-cyhalothrin. During 48-h-tests, we exposed bees to λ-cyhalothrin at four crucial times of the day: at 04:30 a.m., 11:30 a.m., 06:30 p.m., and 11:30 p.m. The results obtained indicate that in bees the intensity of the λ-cyhalothrin degradation is the highest during first 6 h after intoxication, when it disappeared at the rate of 14.29% h-1, 11.43% h-1, 13.15% h-1, and 12.50% h-1 in bees treated at noon, sunset, midnight, and sunrise, respectively. In the later period (6-48 h of the experiment), the degradation stopped and its rate did not exceed 1.0% h-1. In the control group of bees we demonstrated that the increase in the Cyp9Q1 and Cyp9Q3 expression was the highest during the experiments started at 04:30 a.m., while the highest elevation in the Cyp9Q2 expression was observed in the group for which the experiments started at 11:30 p.m.In intoxicated honey bees, the highest increase in the Cyp9Q1 expression occurred in the group treated with the pesticide at 11:30 a.m. In the case of genes encoding Cyp9Q2 and Cyp9Q3, the highest rise in the expression took place at 06:30 p.m.The obtained results indicate that honey bees activate detoxifying mechanisms partly protecting them against the effects of hazardous substances absorbed from the environment more efficiently during foraging than at other times of the day.

Dissipation kinetics and biological degradation by yeast and dietary risk assessment of fluxapyroxad in apples.

The aim of this study was to investigate the dissipation kinetics of fluxapyroxad in apples, the influence of biological treatment with yeast, and the estimation of dietary exposure for consumers, both adults and children. The gas chromatography technique with the electron capture detector was used to analyse the fluxapyroxad residues. Samples of apples were prepared by the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method. The average fluxapyroxad recoveries in apple samples ranged from 107.9 to 118.4%, the relative standard deviations ranged from 4.2 to 4.7%, and the limit of quantification was 0.005 mg/kg. The dissipation half-lives in Gala and Idared varieties were 8.9 and 9.0 days, respectively. Degradation levels of the tested active substance after application of yeast included in a biological preparation Myco-Sin were 59.9% for Gala and 43.8% for Idared. The estimated dietary risk for fluxapyroxad in apples was on the acceptable safety level (below 9.8% for children and 1.9% for adults) and does not pose a danger to the health of consumers.

Treating honey bees with an extremely low frequency electromagnetic field and pesticides: Impact on the rate of disappearance of azoxystrobin and λ-cyhalothrin and the structure of some functional groups of the probabilistic molecules.

The purpose of these laboratory tests was to assess the impact of 50 Hz EMF (electromagnetic field) on the disappearance of azoxystrobin (active ingredient (AI) of Amistar 250 SC) and λ-cyhalothrin (AI of Karate Zeon 050 CS) in the body of honey bees (Apis mellifera) and the structure of some functional groups of the probabilistic molecules in their organisms. Amistar 250 SC (an azoxystrobin-based fungicide; ABF) and Karate Zeon 050 CS (a λ-cyhalothrin-based insecticide; CBI) are plant protection products (PPPs) applied to bee-pollinated-crops. Chromatographic methods were used to assess the rate of AI disappearance. EMF affected the rate of disappearance of azoxystrobin and λ-cyhalothrin in bees within 6 h of intoxication. When these substances were used separately their disappearance in the presence of EMF slowed from 12.6% to 10.5% h-1 and from 9.2% to 4.8% h-1, respectively, and accelerated when used in a mixture, from 14.1% to 14.7% h-1 and from 9.3% to 11.5% h-1 respectively. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to analyze changes in the functional groups of the probabilistic molecules of the tested bees. To obtain the information about the spectra variations we used the Principal Component Analysis. It has been shown, that EMF statistically significantly interferes with amide I and II, symmetric PO32- group from DNA, RNA and phospholipids vibrations. It also increased the number of changes of functional groups of the probabilistic molecules caused by ABF, but at the same time limited the changes in the functional groups studied in bees treated with CBI and a mixture containing both of them. In addition, exposure to EMF in bees treated with fungicide or insecticide, separately, and with both preparations caused differences (p < 0.05) in the secondary structure of proteins compared to controls. The obtained results indicate that EMF may affect the rate of metabolism and the detoxification process of pesticides in bees, depending on the AI of PPPs, applied individually or together. However, further detailed research is required to explain the mechanism of EMF as a detoxification modulator.

Synthetic Pesticides Used in Agricultural Production Promote Genetic Instability and Metabolic Variability in Candida spp.

The effects of triazole fungicide Tango® (epoxiconazole) and two neonicotinoid insecticide formulations Mospilan® (acetamiprid) and Calypso® (thiacloprid) were investigated in Candida albicans and three non-albicans species Candida pulcherrima, Candida glabrata and Candida tropicalis to assess the range of morphological, metabolic and genetic changes after their exposure to pesticides. Moreover, the bioavailability of pesticides, which gives us information about their metabolization was assessed using gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS). The tested pesticides caused differences between the cells of the same species in the studied populations in response to ROS accumulation, the level of DNA damage, changes in fatty acids (FAs) and phospholipid profiles, change in the percentage of unsaturated to saturated FAs or the ability to biofilm. In addition, for the first time, the effect of tested neonicotinoid insecticides on the change of metabolic profile of colony cells during aging was demonstrated. Our data suggest that widely used pesticides, including insecticides, may increase cellular diversity in the Candida species population-known as clonal heterogeneity-and thus play an important role in acquiring resistance to antifungal agents.

Influence of Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma harzianum on Penthiopyrad Degradation under Laboratory and Field Studies.

In plant protection, biological preparations are used alternately with chemical pesticides. The applied microorganism can influence the concentration of chemical substances. Laboratory and field studies were conducted to assess the influence of Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma harzianum on the penthiopyrad concentration. In laboratory studies, the effectiveness of penthiopyrad degradation by B. subtilis was approximately 5% during 14 days of the experiment. For penthiopyrad treated with T. harzianum strains, the degradation effectiveness ranged from 34.2% on Day 3 to 56.9% on Day 14. In experiments testing the effects of mixed culture of microorganisms, the effectiveness of penthiopyrad degradation ranged from 23.7% on Day 3 to 29.1% on Day 14. After treatment of apple trees of Gala and Golden Delicious varieties with a biological preparation, a maximum degradation of penthiopyrad of 20% was found in both varieties. Samples of apples were prepared by the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method, and penthiopyrad was analyzed by gas chromatography with a mass detector. A determined value of the chronic exposure to penthiopirad was 1.02% of the acceptable daily intake, both for children and for adults. The acute exposure amounted to 7.2% and 1.9% of the acute reference dose for children and adults, respectively. These values were considered to be acceptable and not threatening to health.

The difference in dissipation of clomazone and metazachlor in soil under field and laboratory conditions and their uptake by plants.

The study concerned dissipation of metazachlor and clomazone, herbicides widely used in rapeseed (Brassica napus L. subsp. napus) protection, applied to the clay soil under field and laboratory conditions. Furthermore, the uptake of these pesticide from soil by rapeseed plants was investigated under field conditions. An additional aim of this work was to modify the QuEChERS method for the determination of metazachlor and clomazone in the plant material. Analytical procedures for metazachlor and clomazone qualification and quantification in rapeseed plants and soil were developed, using gas chromatography with an micro electron capture detector (GC-µECD) and a mass detector (GC-MS/MS QqQ) as confirmation. Dissipation kinetics of herbicide residues in soil were described as first-order equations. The analytical performance was very satisfactory and confirmed that the methods meet the requirements of the European Commission. In the conducted field experiments it was found that dissipation of clomazone and metazachlor in clay soil follows first-order kinetics (R2 between 0.964 and 0.978), and half-lives were 9.5 days and 10.2 days for clomazone and metazachlor, respectively. Under laboratory conditions, dissipation of clomazone and metazachlor in soil also follows first-order kinetics (R2 between 0.937 and 0.938), and half-lives were 8.8 days and 5.7 days for clomazone and metazachlor, respectively. Residues of both herbicides in rape plants 22 days after application of herbicides were below the maximum residue levels for Brassica plants. Metazachlor and clomazone dissipate very fast in clay soil and their uptake by rape plants is very low.

Influence of a Commercial Biological Fungicide containing Trichoderma harzianum Rifai T-22 on Dissipation Kinetics and Degradation of Five Herbicides in Two Types of Soil.

Biological crop protection is recommended to be applied alternately or together with chemical one, to protect human health from the excessive use of toxic pesticides. Presence of microorganisms can influence the concentration of chemical pollutants in soil. The aim of this study is to estimate the influence of a commercial biological fungicide containing Trichoderma harzianum Rifai T-22 on dissipation kinetics and degradation of five herbicides belonging to different chemical classes: clomazone, fluazifop-P-butyl, metribuzin, pendimethalin, and propyzamide, in two types of soil. Results of the study revealed that T. harzianum T-22 influences pesticide degradation and dissipation kinetics of the non-persistent herbicides: clomazone, fluazifop-P-butyl, and metribuzin. In soil with a higher content of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter, degradation increased by up to 24.2%, 24.8%, and 23.5% for clomazone, fluazifop-P-butyl, and metribuzin, respectively. In soil with lower organic content, degradation was on a low level, of 16.1%, 17.7%, and 16.3% for clomazone, fluazifop-P-butyl, and metribuzin, respectively. In our study, the addition of the biological preparation shortened herbicide dissipation half-lives, from 0.3 days (2.9%) for fluazifop-P-butyl, to 18.4 days (25.1%) for clomazone. During the degradation study, no significant differences were noticed for pendimethalin, belonging to persistent substances. Biological protection of crops can modify pesticide concentrations and dissipation rates. On one hand, this may result in the reduced effectiveness of herbicide treatments, while on the other, it can become a tool for achieving cleaner environment.