A Comparison of the Composition of Selected Commercial Sandalwood Oils with the International Standard.

Sandalwood oils are highly desired but expensive, and hence many counterfeit oils are sold in high street shops. The study aimed to determine the content of oils sold under the name sandalwood oil and then compare their chromatographic profile and α- and ß santalol content with the requirements of ISO 3518:2002. Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry analysis found that none of the six tested "sandalwood" oils met the ISO standard, especially in terms of α-santalol content. Only one sample was found to contain both α- and ß-santalol, characteristic of Santalum album. In three samples, valerianol, elemol, eudesmol isomers, and caryophyllene dominated, indicating the presence of Amyris balsamifera oil. Another two oil samples were found to be synthetic mixtures: benzyl benzoate predominating in one, and synthetic alcohols, such as javanol, polysantol and ebanol, in the other. The product label only gave correct information in three cases: one sample containing Santalum album oil and two samples containing Amyris balsamifera oil. The synthetic samples described as 100% natural essential oil from sandalwood are particularly dangerous and misleading to the consumer. Moreover, the toxicological properties of javanol, polysantol and ebanol, for example, are unknown.

[Analysis of volatile ingredients of selected essential oils listing relaxing action]. / Analiza lotnych skladników wybranych olejków eterycznych o dzialaniu relaksacyjnym.

BACKGROUND: Stress is a result of disturbed homeostasis and can contribute to the development of many diseases. One of the methods of combating stress is aromatherapy, which uses essential oils with a calming and relaxing effect. The aim of the work was to perform a qualitative analysis of selected essential oils with a relaxing effect. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The research concerned 6 preparations available on the Polish market, which are attributed with anti-stress activity. The qualitative analysis was carried out by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry, which allows the determination of both main and trace substances in the tested oils. The components of individual samples were compared with data from the literature. RESULTS: In the samples tested 9-36 substances were identified. The following substances had the largest share in the composition of the studied samples: limonene (0.5-91%), linalool acetate (16.8-39.2%), citronellal (0.1-28.7%), linalool (0.8-46.5%), valerianol (17.6%), geraniol (16.4%), and citronellol (14%). CONCLUSIONS: According to literature data, the main components of the studied essential oils have low acute toxicity. They can be safely used as intended and in the quantities recommended by the manufacturer. However, one should remember the potential synergistic effect (as a result of exposure to the abovementioned substances from various sources, such as: food, cosmetics, cleaning agents, etc.), as well as sensitizing effects of some compounds contained in oils. Despite the different chemical structure of active substances contained in the tested oils, it is suggested that the mechanism of the relaxing effect is identical and is associated with the inhibition of glutamatergic neurotransmission, similar to the action of benzodiazepines. Med Pr. 2019;70(2):229-47.

[Comparison of chemical composition of selected essential oils used in respiratory diseases]. / Porównanie skladu chemicznego wybranych olejków eterycznych stosowanych w chorobach ukladu oddechowego.

BACKGROUND: Essential oils are fragrances extracted from plants. They have a smooth consistency and pleasant smell. Essential oils have been applied in aromatherapy, cosmetics, food and pharmaceutical products. The aim of the study was to analyze the composition of selected essential oils used in respiratory diseases. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The qualitative analysis was performed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. For the study 6 essential oils available in Polish shops and used in various respiratory diseases were chosen. The results were compared with the information provided by the manufacturer and the literature. RESULTS: The method used in the presented work allowed to qualitatively identify the main components in studied essential oils. In the analyzed samples generally occurred: α- i ß-pinene, limonene, terpinen-4-ol and caryophyllene. In addition to limonene, the presence of linalool, eugonol and geraniol, potentially allergenic substances, were also detected. CONCLUSIONS: The qualitative composition of the studied essential oils comply with the existing literature data. Their main ingredients show antimicrobial and antiviral activities, therefore they are used to eradicate the symptoms of infection. However, the attention should be paid to the composition of the products because they often comprise potential allergens. Information on the presence of such a substance in the preparation should be clearly marked by the manufacturer on the packaging. Fragrances are also found in a number of household products that increase their concentration in the air of living premises, thereby increasing the risk of side effects especially in people with allergies or sensitive. Med Pr 2018;69(2):167-178.

Selected oxidative stress parameters after single and repeated administration of octabromodiphenyl ether to rats.

OBJECTIVES: Octabromodiphenyl ether (OctaBDE) was used as a flame retardant applied mostly in the manufacture of plastics utilized in the electrical and electronic industries. Owing to its long half-life and being regarded as an environmental pollutant, OctaBDE, like other polybrominated diphenyl ethers, has been classified as a persistent organic pollutant (POP). This study was carried out to assess the effects of oxidative stress (redox homeostasis) induced in rats by OctaBDE. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Female Wistar rats exposed intragastrically to OctaBDE at single (25, 200 or 2000 mg/kg b.w.), or repeated (0.4, 2, 8, 40 or 200 mg/kg/day) doses during 7-28 days were used in the experiment. Selected oxidative stress parameters were determined in the liver and blood serum. RESULTS: Administration (single or repeated) of OctaBDE to rats resulted in the impaired redox homeostasis, as evidenced by the increased levels of reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) glutathione in the liver, the reduced total antioxidant status (TAS) in serum and the increased concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the liver. After multiple doses of OctaBDE, elevated activity of glutathione transferase (GST) in the liver was also noted. CONCLUSIONS: After repeated administration of OctaBDE at the lowest dose (0.4 mg/kg/day), changes were observed in the parameters (MDA, TAS, GSSG) indicative of oxidative stress.

Octabromodiphenyl ether - porphyrogenicity after repeated administration to rats.

OBJECTIVES: Octabromodiphenyl ether (OctaBDE) is a flame retardant which has been withdrawn from common use due to its negative effect on the environment. The literature data regarding its toxicity addresses its effect on liver function, the endocrine and reproductive systems, as well as its developmental toxicology aspects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of repeated administration of OctaBDE on heme biosynthesis in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was performed on female Wistar rats. OctaBDE was administered intragastrically at four different doses (2, 8, 40 or 200 mg/kg/day) for 7, 14, 21 or 28 days. The following measures of heme synthesis disturbance were used: urinary excretion of porphyrins, liver concentration of porphyrins, the activity of delta-aminolevulinate synthase (ALA-S) and delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (ALA-D) in the liver. RESULTS: After 28 days of exposure, lower ALA-S and ALA-D activity was observed in the liver. Additionally, increased concentrations of high carboxylated porphyrins (octa- and heptacarboxyporphyrins) were found in the liver: from 2- to 10-fold after the 2 mg/kg/day doses and from 4- to 14-fold after the 8-200 mg/kg/day doses. The porphyrogenic effect of OctaBDE was also evidenced by augmented, dose-dependent and exposure time-dependent, concentrations of total porphyrins in urine (2-7.5-fold increase) and their urinary excretion (2-9-fold increase). Tetracarboxyporphyrins predominated in the urine; their concentrations increased 2.5-10 fold. CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that repeated exposure to OctaBDE affects heme biosynthesis and the levels of porphyrins. The lowest effective level which induced changes in porphyrin concentration was 2 mg/kg/day.

The effect of short-term intoxication of rats with pentabromodiphenyl ether (in mixture mimic commercial products).

Until quite recently, pentabromodiphenyl ether (PentaBDE) was most commonly used as a flame retardant. Due to the considerably long atmospheric half-life of PentaBDE and its contribution to environmental pollution, it is categorized as a persistent organic pollutant (POP). As the data on the toxicity of PentaBDE is rather scarce, its potential acute toxicity was the subject of this study. PentaBDE was administered intragastrically to female rats, in a single dose (25, 200 or 2000 mg/kg b.w.). PentaBDE administered to rats disturbed redox homeostasis, which was manifested by lower total antioxidant status (TAS) in serum and by higher liver glutathione reduced (GSH) concentration. The toxic effect of PentaBDE intensified lipid peroxidation. On histopathological examination, administration of the highest PentaBDE dose (2000 mg/kg b.w.) was seen to induce symptoms of fatty liver. PentaBDE caused an increase in relative liver mass, cytochromes P-450 (after two highest doses), a dose-dependent increase in the activity of CYP lA (12-26 fold) and CYP 2B (5-6 fold) as well as the levels of CYP lAl (16-50 fold) and CYP 4A (2-3 fold) in liver.

Toxicity of penta- and decabromodiphenyl ethers after repeated administration to rats: a comparative study.

Until recently, pentabromodiphenyl (PentaBDE) and decabromodiphenyl (DecaBDE) ethers were commonly used as flame retardants in a wide array of products, mostly in the production of plastics utilized in the electric, electronic and textile industries. The aim of this study was to compare the toxicity of PentaBDE and DecaBDE after their repeated (7-28 days) intragastric administration to rats. The compounds were given at doses of 2, 8, 40 or 200 mg/kg/day (PentaBDE) and 10, 100 or 1,000 mg/kg/day (DecaBDE). The repeated administration of PentaBDE disturbed redox homeostasis, which was manifested by lower total antioxidant status and increased activity of glutathione reductase in serum and higher concentrations of glutathione reduced and malondialdehyde in the liver. The occurrence of these effects was not observed after DecaBDE administration. The results of histopathological examination showed fatty degeneration after administration of the highest dose of PentaBDE. The repeated administration of PentaBDE also caused the increase in relative liver mass, dose-dependent increase in the activity of CYP 1A (EROD) and CYP 2B (PROD), 7-12- and 2-8-fold, respectively, as well as enhanced level of CYP 1A1 (5-30-fold) and CYP 4A (2-4.5-fold). The administration of DecaBDE induced much less pronounced changes: a maximum 2.8-fold increase in the activity of CYP 1A, a twofold increase in CYP 2B, and no alterations in other parameters under study. Contrary to DecaBDE, PentaBDE disturbed redox homeostasis, and induced liver microsomal enzymes. Fatty degeneration in liver caused by this compound was also found.

The effect of selected aromatic bromine derivatives on the activity of glutathione peroxidase and transferase.

OBJECTIVES: Glutathione (GSH) is an important element of antioxidative barrier. Its biological function consists in eliminating oxygen free radicals. It also acts as a co-substrate in numerous enzymatic reactions catalyzed by glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione S-transferase (GST). In our study we attempted to assess the effect of hexabromobenzene (HBB) and its metabolites on the level of GSH and related enzymes, GPx and GST. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The experiments were performed on female Wistar rats. The investigated compounds (HBB, 1,2,4,5-tetraBB, 1,2,4- and 1,3,5-triBB) were administered intragastrically in three different doses (HBB: 15, 75, and 375 mg/kg; 1,2,4,5-tetraBB and 1,2,4-triBB: 8, 40, and 200 mg/kg; 1,3,5-triBB: 12, 60, and 300 mg/kg) for 7, 14, 21 or 28 days. GSH level and activity of GST and GPx were determined in the obtained material. RESULTS: The highest activity of GPx and GSTwas observed after a 7-fold administration of all investigated compounds. Prolonged time of exposure caused the return to the control values. CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that repeated exposure to aromatic bromine derivatives increases GPx and GST activity only in the initial phase of the experiment.

The effect of repeated administration of selected benzene bromoderivatives on the liver catalase activity in rats.

OBJECTIVES: Hexabromobenzene (HBB) is used as a flame retardant mainly added to plastics, timber and textiles. Tetrabromobenzene (TBB) is its metabolite. Both these compounds are present in the environment and in human and animal tissues. 1,4-Dibromobenzene (1,4-dBB) has found application in agriculture, pharmaceutical and some other industries as well as in households. It can also occur in the form of an environmental product of HBB debromination. It is known from laboratory experiments that animals after repeated exposure to these compounds, show the increase in relative liver weight. These results enable us to presume that benzene bromoderivatives may prove to be potential peroxisome proliferators. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The investigated compounds were administrated intragastrically in three different doses for 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Catalase was determined according to the method of Johansson and Borg with use of Purpald. RESULTS: Repeated administration of the aforesaid compounds decreased catalase activity in the rat liver. CONCLUSIONS: The decreased level of catalase may point to its possible inactivation by metabolites of HBB, TBB and 1,4-dBB.

Effect of repeated administration of hexabromobenzene and 1,2,4,5-tetrabromobenzene on the levels of selected cytochromes in rat liver.

OBJECTIVES: Hexabromobenzene (HBB) is a flame retardant, which added to polymers, plastics, textiles, wood or paper, decreases the amount of carbon monoxide and heat release during fire. HBB is also formed as a result of decabromodiphenyl oxide pyrolysis or natural decabromobiphenyl ether debromination as the effect of photolysis. 1,2,4,5-Tetrabromobenzene (1,2,4,5-tetraBB) is a compound formed in the body as a metabolite of HBB. Both these compounds may appear in the environment and human tissue. The purpose of the study was to estimate the effect of repeated administration of HBB and 1,2,4,5-tetraBB on the levels of selected cytochromes in rat liver. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The investigated compounds were administered intragastrically in three different doses for 7, 14, 21 or 28 days. Relative liver mass was estimated as well as total concentration of cytochromes P-450 and EROD (CYP 1A) and PROD (CYP 2B) activity in rat liver. Concentration of cytochromes P-450 was determined in microsomal fraction (using the spectrometric method). EROD and PROD were detected by fluorimetric method. RESULTS: Repeated administration of 1,2,4,5-tetraBB and HBB (in the highest dose) was found to increase relative liver mass. After 1,2,4,5-tetraBB administration, total liver concentration of cytochromes P-450 increased even by several times, depending on the volume and number of doses. Less pronounced alterations were found after repeated administration of HBB. Exposure to HBB resulted in a tenfold increase in EROD activity (after 14-28 days) and a significantly lower increase in PROD activity. 1,2,4,5-TetraBB increased EROD activity by 2-3 times and PROD activity by maximum 2 times. CONCLUSIONS: Following the experiments, it may be stated that HBB and 1,2,4,5-tetraBB are inductors of microsomal enzymes system. 1,2,4,5-TetraBB more than HBB increases the level of total concentration of cytochromes and induces isoform CYP 2B (PROD). Administration of HBB resulted in the increase in CYP 1A (EROD) activity comparable to that after 3-methylcholanthrene.

Acute and subacute nephrotoxicity of 2-bromophenol in rats.

The present report aims at providing broader information on the acute nephrotoxicity of 2-bromophenol (2-BP) (a bromobenzene (BB) metabolite), due to its action on the kidneys, after repeated administration. Investigations were performed on female rats. Following a single dose, the most pronounced changes involved: concentrations and rates of excretion of proteins in urine, the number of epithelial cells excreted in urine, creatinine and urea clearance and reduced glutathione in renal tissue. Immediate effects could be ascribed to both renal tubules and glomeruli, mirrored in the level of urinary proteins and intensified excretion of renal epithelial cells. Less pronounced changes of the indicator values were noted under repeated dosing of 2-BP. The results obtained in a single exposure study confirm earlier reports on the mild nephrotoxicity of 2-BP following exposure to high doses. However, the transition from single to repeated exposure does not result in enhanced nephrotoxicity.

Comparison of tissue distribution and metabolism of 1,2- and 1,4-dibromobenzenes in female rats.

The distribution, excretion and metabolism of 1,4-dibromobenzene (1,4-DBB) and 1,2-dibromobenzene (1,2-DBB), following a single intraperitoneal administration to female Wistar rats, were investigated using radiotracer 3H and GC-MS technique. The maximum level of 3H after 1,4-DBB administration was detected in all examined rat tissues between 4 and 24 h foltowing the injection. The highest concentrations of 3H were found in fat tissue, muscles, adrenal glands and sciatic nerve. About 50% of administered dose was still retained in the rat 72 h after injection. For 1,2-DBB, the highest level of 3H was in the liver, kidneys and fat tissue 4 and 8 h after administration. Three days after injection, less than 2% of the given dose was retained in the rat body. Urine turned out to be the main route of 3H excretion following the injection of both compounds (30% and 82%, after 1,4-DBB and 1,2-DBB, respectively), and about 4% of the given dose was excreted in feces. In urine of rats the following substances were identified (in sequence 1,4-dBB and 1,2-dBB): (1) unchanged parent compounds (5 and 11%); (2) dibromophenols (84 and 73%); (3) dibromothiophenols (5 and 10%) and (4) monobromophenols (1.9 and 0.7%). This study suggests that 1,2-DBB is characterized by a relatively high turnover rate, whereas 1,4-DBB shows a tendency for long-term retention in the body.